Discussion:
Authorization for broadcasting past activities as gladiator
(too old to reply)
mrliu918
2008-12-18 03:03:30 UTC
Permalink
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast past activies as amateur boxer and athlete.

Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Part of the tape recording on yu fung liu knocking out bisons, tigers,
lions, bears, and other predators has been shown to public and the
world in 1990 for many purpose including conducting scientific
research and charity.
The board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case
should address all the public concern.
Authorizationfor the board of trustee or the person entrusted to
broadcastpast activities as gladiator.
All agreement with the board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case concerning the role of gladiator before 1992 shall remain intact.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
mrliu918
2008-12-18 03:35:07 UTC
Permalink
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast how mike tyson was knocked out and knocked down
within one single game.

Interview with military personnels from all over the world are
available to public only if there are legal consent for broadcasting
prior to meeting.

Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Post by mrliu918
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast past activies as amateur boxer and athlete.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Part of the tape recording on yu fung liu knocking out bisons, tigers,
lions, bears, and other predators has been shown to public and the
world in 1990 for many purpose including conducting scientific
research and charity.
The board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case
should address all the public concern.
Authorizationfor the board of trustee or the person entrusted to
broadcastpast activities as gladiator.
All agreement with the board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case concerning the role of gladiator before 1992 shall remain intact.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
mrliu918
2009-02-14 11:20:31 UTC
Permalink
Post by mrliu918
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast how mike tyson was knocked out and knocked down
within one single game.
Interview with military personnels from all over the world are
available to public only if there are legal consent for broadcasting
prior to meeting.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Post by mrliu918
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast past activies as amateur boxer and athlete.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Part of the tape recording on yu fung liu knocking out bisons, tigers,
lions, bears, and other predators has been shown to public and the
world in 1990 for many purpose including conducting scientific
research and charity.
The board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case
should address all the public concern.
Authorizationfor the board of trustee or the person entrusted to
broadcastpast activities as gladiator.
All agreement with the board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case concerning the role of gladiator before 1992 shall remain intact.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
mrliu918
2009-02-15 04:52:05 UTC
Permalink
My cell phone: 852-93460474

Other identification of yu fung:
The gladiator who defeat tigers, lions, bears, panthers and other
predators with barehanded.
The person who defeated Japanese sumo champions, weightlifters, many
Olympic boxing champions in military exercise around 1990.
Post by mrliu918
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast how mike tyson was knocked out and knocked down
within one single game.
Interview with military personnels from all over the world are
available to public only if there are legal consent for broadcasting
prior to meeting.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Post by mrliu918
Authorization for the board of trustee and person entrusted before
1992 to broadcast past activies as amateur boxer and athlete.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
Part of the tape recording on yu fung liu knocking out bisons, tigers,
lions, bears, and other predators has been shown to public and the
world in 1990 for many purpose including conducting scientific
research and charity.
The board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case
should address all the public concern.
Authorizationfor the board of trustee or the person entrusted to
broadcastpast activities as gladiator.
All agreement with the board of trustee and the person entrusted to handle the case concerning the role of gladiator before 1992 shall remain intact.
Sincerely
Yu Fung Liu
mrliu918
2009-03-30 07:17:16 UTC
Permalink
http://www.fightingarts.com/ubbthreads/showflat.php?Number=139214
http://www.proelite.com/forums/12345/topics/188509
http://www.mikementzer.com/blee.html


Bruce Lee - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Lee Hoi Chuen would resume his acting career and become even a bigger
star during the ensuing rebuilding years. Bruce Lee's mother Grace had
an even more ...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Lee - 211k - Similar pages


Ali vs. Bruce Lee [Archive] - Boxing For... Ok Show me a Bruce Lee
fight record, or Proof Of him defeating anyone worth mention... then
tell me logically, in a fight how he would ...
www.boxingscene.com/forums/archive/index.php/t-7212.html [Found on
Google] Refresh Reply Replies: 46 Views: 515 2 months ago

Topic: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDBRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD keithnofear777
(422 posts)send to a friend Bruce Lee's fight record : 12 -0 -11ko's
1submission: 1955 Willam Chung Hong Kong Exibition- 1957 Wong Shun
Leung H. K .E. -- 1958 Pu Chang KO 2rd Referee Wong Shun Leung -- 1958
Yang Haung KO 1rd Amatur Boxing Tourtament -- 1958 Leigh Lo KO1rd
A.B.T -- 1958 Shen Yuen KO1rd A.B.T -- 1958 Gary Elms KO 3rd A.B.T
Finals --1960 unkown fighter Seattle KO by backfist in street fight --
1962 Seattle KO 1rd street fight Refree Jesse Glover --1963 unkown
fighter KO street fight -- 1964 Wong Jack Man Oakland Cali. This fight
is disputed most say it was a win for Lee others say it was a draw ---
1973 bruce won a fight with a 30 sec. KO also in 73 USPK Karate Champ
Bob wall tells of a fight on the set of enter the dragon. bob wall :
The guy was much bigger faster & stronger then bruce the kid was good
trying to punch bruce's brains in bruce methodically took him apart
the kid could not touch bruce the fight ended with bruce lee winning
by armbar . hope you all enjoy this piece of MMA history Bruce Lee was
the best MMA fighter who ever lived he clearly had KO power & was able
to beat a bigger stronger fighters with MMA skill way ahead of his
time .
Lee handed the scroll disdainfully back to their leader. "I'll teach
whomever I choose," he said calmly. "I don't care what color they
are." While Lee's non-racist views are today generally applauded, in
San Francisco's Chinatown in the mid 1960s they were tantamount to
treason -- at least within the Chinese community. Indeed, teaching
Chinese combative "secrets" to non-Chinese races was perceived as the
highest form of treason in the martial arts community. By his words
and demeanor, Lee had effectively thrown the gauntlet back at the feet
of his would-be challenger and, while Lee had many virtues, it is well
known among his friends, family and students that patience in
suffering fools and their ignorance was not one of them.
FightingArts Estore
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medulanet
put up or shut up


Reged: 09/03/03
Posts: 2042
Loc: Phoenix, Arizona USA Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make
JKD to actually be a fighting art?
#139214 - 01/17/04 12:07 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



I have been recently been reading a lot of articles about Bruce Lee by
Joe Lewis. In his interviews he states that in all of their training
he never sparred with Bruce once. He also stated that most of Bruce
Lee's training did not consist of actual sparring but mainly drills
and theory and he was really not a "fighter." Given the fact that
Bruce Lee has no professional fight record I really see no reason to
discount what Lewis says in these interviews. He then goes on to say
that even one of Bruce Lee's best students, Dan Inosanto, is not a
fighter and did not practice much sparing either. This is certainly
not the way I have seen both Bruce Lee and JKD portrayed. It is just
confusing to me because I thought the whole point of JKD was to create
an effective way to fight where classical martial arts were not
effective. But how can the founder of such an art not base his
training and research on his own experiences in actual fighting. I was
wondering if anybody else has thoughts on this subject.

Post Extras:

joesixpack
Professional Poster


Reged: 02/04/02
Posts: 2282
Loc: Australia Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to
actually be a fighting art?
#708634 - 01/17/04 03:42 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Did Jow Lewis ever challenge Mr Lee?

Someone with that level of fitness, speed and timing is dangerous.

Not a pro fighter, but who would want to fight Mr Lee (when he was
alive) in a non controlled environment? Not me.

You can tell if people can fight by the way they move, hit, etc in
training. Bruce was one of them.

Benny the Jet may be an "old man" now, but I wouldn't break into his
house...

Lee probably trained nearly entirely on specifocs once he got so
good.

Post Extras:

MuayThai
Professional Poster


Reged: 08/20/03
Posts: 2242
Loc: UK Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually
be a fighting art?
#708635 - 01/17/04 05:10 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



[QUOTE]Originally posted by joesixpack:
You can tell if people can fight by the way they move, hit, etc in
training. Bruce was one of them.

.[/QUOTE]


wow! sorry Joe but that is very very wrong. Its usually people who
look good in training but have never fought who look like crap when
actually fighting.... training and fighting are worlds apart mate and
to be honest there are lots of perfect techniques in training,
fighting is a very different thing....

....if Bruce does have a low fight record, if the man had no
experience fighting then i would agree and say he is just a fit
individual who knows martial arts.

You need to fight to be good at fighting, you cannot, or its extremely
rare, be good at fighting without fighting.

Post Extras:

JKogas
wants you to KNOW


Reged: 01/25/03
Posts: 10574
Loc: North Carolina Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD
to actually be a fighting art?
#708636 - 01/17/04 07:03 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Bruce never DID compile a competitive fight record. Bruce was a genius
and a philosopher more so than a fighter, although many do contend
that he did in fact spar, and would spar all out.

I doubt he sparred with Lewis. Lewis WAS a fighter and a champ. Lee
was a movie star. My thinking has it that Lee's status as a martial
arts movie star wasn't to be compromised by sparring with anyone who
might beat him. That's pretty much the case with all martial arts
movie stars -- they rarely ever seem to fight anyone (or spar). Don
Wilson was an exception, although he wasn't much of a movie star
either.

Just some thoughts

-John

Post Extras:

ninja-raiden
Enthusiast


Reged: 03/13/03
Posts: 922
Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually be a
fighting art?
#708637 - 01/17/04 01:18 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



I think that Bruce's understanding of martial arts would make him an
extremely deadly fighter i.e. he knows what works.

Post Extras:

Shotokan
Unregistered




Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually be a
fighting art?
#708638 - 01/17/04 02:55 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



What made Lee amazing was his training methods...running what 6 miles
a day, weight lifting...heavy bag training, Wing Chung dummy training
etc...

In terms of the art he form JKD (his JKD has feats ony he could do e.g
sliding side kicks) and so the techniques he choose would only work
for him and would not necessarily work for anyone else...

I understand that each JKD fighter has to for his own art...using the
principles Bruce layed out...

Bruce was Chinese and he was influenced by Chinese philosophy.

In Bhuddism (a religion that influence the original arts) you are
encouraged to read what is written in the holy book, think about it
and see if it is true in your life. If you don't agree with it you
leave it and move on to another reading.

This is the principle behind JKD you look at an art and see if it is
useful. If it is not useful you leave it...

Therefore what is useful to me will not be useful to you...it depends
on personal attributes like opinions, knowledge level etc.

I don't know JKD but I understand the philosopy...

Post Extras:

Ender
Professional Poster


Reged: 04/29/03
Posts: 2253
Loc: Burlington, Ontario, Canada Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And
did he make JKD to actually be a fighting art?
#708639 - 01/17/04 03:43 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



What is a sliding side kick?

Post Extras:

nekogami13
Unregistered




Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually be a
fighting art?
#708640 - 01/17/04 03:58 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



You are standing to my right side,I am standing in horse stance
(simpler to explain,not necessary to be in horse stance).I decide I
want to kick you, but you are slightly out of range.I slide my left
foot over to my right,side kick you with right leg.

Post Extras:

joesixpack
Professional Poster


Reged: 02/04/02
Posts: 2282
Loc: Australia Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to
actually be a fighting art?
#708641 - 01/17/04 04:34 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



[QUOTE]Originally posted by MuayThai:

wow! sorry Joe but that is very very wrong. Its usually people who
look good in training but have never fought who look like crap when
actually fighting.... training and fighting are worlds apart mate and
to be honest there are lots of perfect techniques in training,
fighting is a very different thing....

....if Bruce does have a low fight record, if the man had no
experience fighting then i would agree and say he is just a fit
individual who knows martial arts.

You need to fight to be good at fighting, you cannot, or its extremely
rare, be good at fighting without fighting.[/QUOTE]

You, kind Sir, are rambling.

Post Extras:

Shotokan
Unregistered




Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually be a
fighting art?
#708642 - 01/17/04 06:33 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Rambling? Come one JKogas does this all the time....

beside it was JKogas himself who first said that you cannot learn to
fight with out fighting...now when someone else says it they are
rambling...

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Chen Zen
former moderator


Reged: 02/09/03
Posts: 6876
Loc: Ms Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually
be a fighting art?
#708643 - 01/17/04 08:46 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Bruce might not have had a Professional fight record but he did fight
plenty. Before he moved to the U.S it was common to fight on the
streets of Hong Kong. He also had to fight to be able to teach here
and He fought numerous times on his sets by would be movie stars out
to steal the spotlight. Also due to the fact that he was teaching
three different champions at the same time it must be assumed that he
was an excellent fighter because why would someone who was already a
champ learn anything from someone who could not beat them?

Post Extras:

joesixpack
Professional Poster


Reged: 02/04/02
Posts: 2282
Loc: Australia Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to
actually be a fighting art?
#708644 - 01/18/04 05:18 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



My point was, how the hell would MT know wether how well I can judge a
person's fighting ability by the way I analyse their training methods,
fitness and "style" (game, if you prefer)?

Bruce was known for his street brawling, admitted stuff on camera was
too flashy, was fast, very fit, had a good theory and could hit hard.

Would you break into his house?

Post Extras:

medulanet
put up or shut up


Reged: 09/03/03
Posts: 2042
Loc: Phoenix, Arizona USA Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he
make JKD to actually be a fighting art?
#708645 - 01/18/04 09:27 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



[QUOTE]Originally posted by Chen Zen:
Bruce might not have had a Professional fight record but he did fight
plenty. Before he moved to the U.S it was common to fight on the
streets of Hong Kong. He also had to fight to be able to teach here
and He fought numerous times on his sets by would be movie stars out
to steal the spotlight. Also due to the fact that he was teaching
three different champions at the same time it must be assumed that he
was an excellent fighter because why would someone who was already a
champ learn anything from someone who could not beat them?[/QUOTE]

So you would never learn from a teacher that you could beat in a
fight? What if a muay thai boxer can beat one of the best bjj guys in
the world. Does that mean he should not learn bjj from him? Fighting
"actors" on a set is one thing, but fighting professional fights is
another. If I told you I beat a lot of actors would you give me
respect, I hope not. I have met many people who have fought on the
streets, I have even done a small amount of it from time to time, but
that does not always mean that you can fight, and no everybody in
China does not know kung fu so the question is were any of these
"street fighters" and "actors" truly skilled. Theory is a wonderful
thing. You first need a game plan before you actually do something. So
what if Bruce was more about theory than actual application in an
alive environment. Does that mean I cannot take his theory and apply
it effectively. Hell no. There are many fighters who recieve training
from people who have never fought. If you notice the champions that
Bruce Lee trained already knew how to fight. They did not need him to
teach them that, but he was able to give them that little extra to
propel them to the next level. I have never heard of Bruce training
anybody from "scratch" and making them into a fighting machine, but
his principles can do wonders when someone is already versed in a
"delivery system." It is that system where you learn to "fight," and
it is Bruce's teaching that helps one put it altogether.

Post Extras:

JKogas
wants you to KNOW


Reged: 01/25/03
Posts: 10574
Loc: North Carolina Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD
to actually be a fighting art?
#708646 - 01/18/04 11:17 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Great post. My sentiments exactly.


-John

Post Extras:

Shotokan
Unregistered




Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually be a
fighting art?
#708647 - 01/18/04 11:52 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



You guys are only capitalizing on Chen Zen last sentence.

But the rest of it is true not because Bruce didn't have a fight
record didn't mean that he didn't actually fight. Who knows who he was
before he came from Hong Kong...his fight record may be in Hong Kong
for all you know.

-Just some thoughts...

Post Extras:

Chen Zen
former moderator


Reged: 02/09/03
Posts: 6876
Loc: Ms Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually
be a fighting art?
#708648 - 01/18/04 03:11 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Exactly my point. And for the record, no I would not train under
someone I can beat. If I can beat you its because your technique is
flawed and I do not intend to add flawed technique to my training
regimen.

Post Extras:

medulanet
put up or shut up


Reged: 09/03/03
Posts: 2042
Loc: Phoenix, Arizona USA Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he
make JKD to actually be a fighting art?
#708649 - 01/18/04 05:14 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



[QUOTE]Originally posted by Chen Zen:
Exactly my point. And for the record, no I would not train under
someone I can beat. If I can beat you its because your technique is
flawed and I do not intend to add flawed technique to my training
regimen.[/QUOTE]

So are you saying that the only reason a person loses a fight is
because his technique is not as good as his opponent. What about
heart, timing, speed, strength, power, etc. I have seen people with
bad technique, but are naturally fast. Although they can not hit as
hard as they could if they possesed better technique, they have enough
power to knock somebody out and enough speed and timing to connect. I
would rather learn from somebody who has excellent knowledge of their
style and can teach rather than someone who is simply a good fighter.
Just because you can fight does not mean that you can teach and
viceversa. For instance Mark Kerr trained with and studied under Bass
Ruten for a while, and was better for it. If he could have beaten Bas
(which is a possiblity) should he have refused to study under him?
That does not make any sense to me. Does that mean an undefeated
champion should not learn from anyone since nobody can defeat him?
Mike Tyson would have killed Cus Demato, but he was his trainer and he
was great when he was being trained from Cus.

Post Extras:

joesixpack
Professional Poster


Reged: 02/04/02
Posts: 2282
Loc: Australia Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to
actually be a fighting art?
#708650 - 01/18/04 07:55 PM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



That's garbage Chen. I think of myself as an average 2nd Dan in a good
style, for being a 21 yo man, but I know I am a much better teacher
than a figher...etc

Post Extras:

JohnL
clearly not an idiot


Reged: 03/24/03
Posts: 4285
Loc: NY, NY, USA Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to
actually be a fighting art?
#708651 - 01/19/04 06:27 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



Would I learn from someone I could beat. Certainly.

He may be better than me at some things, and I at others. As such I
have no problem learning from him.

Also, look at boxers. All the best boxers learn from people they can
beat. They have trainers they can beat, sparring partners they can
beat etc.

Taking the subject back to it's original topic though;

As far as I am aware, Bruce Lee had no documented fight record. As
such, I find it interesting that a lot of BL fans quote him as saying
would you learn swimming from someone who can't swim.

Seems like people provide quotes with a slight bias to justify their
own arguments.

JohnL

Post Extras:

Chen Zen
former moderator


Reged: 02/09/03
Posts: 6876
Loc: Ms Re: Was Bruce Lee a fighter? And did he make JKD to actually
be a fighting art?
#708652 - 01/19/04 10:48 AM Edit Reply Quote Quick
Reply



The conversation about learning from someone you can beat stemmed from
the example of Bruce lee teaching other champs like joe lewis and
chuck norris. Obviously Bruce was fast, had much power and technique
so on and etc. Now given that he possessed these attributes if he
could have been beaten by Chuck or Joe then it was because of flawed
technique. Also I think any good teacher should be able to fight
better than his students because he has more experience and a better
understanding of the system. Shoalin Monks fight even in their late
sixties and probably even older and are quite confident in doing so.

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Bruce lee
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Who would win in a fight? Bruce Lee at his Prime, or a jujitsu master?
3 months ago
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no chuck norris involved.
3 months ago
A BRAZILIAN JU JITSU MASTER! AND BRUCE LEE AT HIS VERY BEST!
3 months ago
a street fight with no rules, just their bodies, no weapons. yes, a
black belt ju jitsu master. freestyle.
3 months ago
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by eoh418
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Zachary displayed a fine example of having no clue what Brazilian Jiu-
Jitsu (bjj) is...

BJJ is all about controlling the opponent on the ground... bjj has
very limited and very weak takedowns... Royce Gracie excelled in
controlling a grounded opponent over anything else he did or his
opponents tried to do to him (including punches once it hit the
ground)... Royce's accomplishments are not limited to his career in
the UFC either.. he has an extensive amount of wins with few losses in
his own sport of BJJ.

Bruce Lee had very little background fighting on the ground and as a
result wrote little about it, and taught little about it.

Who would win in this case? Who knows!?!?

As a side note.... Bruce Lee was one friggin intense dood!

i had never learned of Bruce being taught jujitsu informally by Wally
Jay until recently.
Source(s):
Bruce Lee fanatic and student of Gracie BJJ (Team Pedro Sauer)
3 months ago
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i love bruce lee. but it would be a hard match.
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Other Answers (9)
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Lowest by crackity jones
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1. Bruce Lee was not a fighter. There is no verifiable fight record of
his surviving, nor footage of him in an actual fight, so we can make
no sound judgement of his fighting abilities. Hence, we also have no
idea of when his 'prime' was supposed to be.

2. By BJJ Master I assume you mean a black belt? Well, there's black
belts and then there's black belts. In a full fight no one with any
sense relies on just one style anymore. Marcelo Garcia would smoke
Wanderlei Silva in a grappling match, Wanderlei would probably murder
Marcelo in MMA; they're both black belts. There are black belts from
21 - 80+, 120lbs to 300, and so on, there are guys who get the black
belt but don't go much further, and guys like Marcelo who go so far
beyond 'black belt' level it's unreal. So really you have to pick
someone for this comparison to be any use.

3. Conclusion: Your question is both illogical and pointless.

EDIT: LOL at people who think Royce Gracie is a BJJ 'master'.
3 months ago
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by Zacharia...
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Bruce Lee would CRUSH a Jiu Jitsu Master. Just because Royce Gracie
was a UFC champ- does not mean he would be invincible. His career
pretty much ended in 2003. Bruce Lee was not only a master of the
takedown- but he also mastered how to keep his opponents down, too. By
making powerful blows strategically, Bruce Lee concentrated each hit
with his 145lb body, with a force equal to about 2000lbs/inch. That's
devastating!
3 months ago
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by Raax
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In the ring, it would be difficult because Bruce uses illegal moves...
so most likely he wouldn't even agree to fight in the ring with a
jujitsu master.

On the streets, Bruce will use more of his environment, probably jump
on something to do his crazy speedy kicks or rip-your-nuts-with-my-
fist technique, lol. It all depends on the skill, but I have more of a
bet on Bruce.
3 months ago
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by tisinfil
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Who knows. All I can say is that Bruce Lee studied the martial arts.
All of them. This fact gives him a great edge over someone who just
studies one art form. For those who say he never studied the ground
game need to do better research before speaking. He studied all forms
of fighting, jujitsu included. He is the "Father of MMA".
3 months ago
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by Jason
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Didn't Gene Lebelle manage to submit Lee? (Yeah, Judo isn't BJJ, but
it's still grappling). So if Lebelle could do it, then a BJJ master
would've probably been able to. (at least until Lee got the hang of
BJJ)
3 months ago
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by Zenlife
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Bruce Lee I'd suggest.

Best wishes :)***
Source(s):
Martial arts 28yrs
Former Japanese jiu-jitsu coach Boxer,Bouncer
3 months ago
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by Gruenen2...
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Bruce Lee would NOT win every fight, there will always be some one out
there better then the next person; Bruce Lee included.
3 months ago
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by Tai
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Depends who the Jujutsu (or Brazilian Jiu jitsu) master is.
3 months ago
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by clowns
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Chuck Norris
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The answer to these stupid questions is always Chuck Norris
3 months ago
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by Sunny D.
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Chuck Norris always wins.
Source(s):
There are no acceptions.
3 months ago
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Bruce Lee
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, searchFor the British arsonist, see Bruce Lee
(arsonist).Bruce Lee

Bruce Lee
Chinese name 李小龍 (Traditional)
Chinese name 李小龙 (Simplified)
Pinyin Lǐ Xiǎolóng (Mandarin)
Jyutping Leih Síulùhng (Cantonese)
Birth name Lee Jun-Fan (李振藩; pinyin: Lǐ Zhènfān)
Ancestry Shunde, Guangdong, China
Born 27 November 1940(1940-11-27)
San Francisco, California, USA
Died 20 July 1973 (aged 32)
Hong Kong
Spouse(s) Linda Emery (1965-1973)
Children Brandon Lee (1965–1993)
Shannon Lee (born 1969)
Official site Bruce Lee Foundation
[show]Awards

Bruce Jun Fan Lee (李振藩; pinyin: Lǐ Zhènfān; 27 November 1940 – 20 July
1973) was a Chinese-American martial artist, philosopher, instructor,
martial arts actor and the founder of the Jeet Kune Do combat form. He
is widely regarded as the most influential martial artist of the
twentieth century and a cultural icon.[1] He was also the father of
actor Brandon Lee and of actress Shannon Lee.Lee was born in San
Francisco, California, and raised in Hong Kong until his late teens.
His Hong Kong and Hollywood-produced films elevated the traditional
Hong Kong martial arts film to a new level of popularity and acclaim,
and sparked the first major surge of interest in Chinese martial arts
in the West. The direction and tone of his films changed and
influenced martial arts and martial arts films in Hong Kong and the
rest of the world as well.Lee became an iconic figure particularly to
the Chinese, as he portrayed Chinese national pride and Chinese
nationalism in his movies.[2] He primarily practiced Chinese martial
arts (Kung fu), particularly Wing Chun.Contents
[hide]
1 Early life
1.1 Education and family
1.2 Names
2 Acting career
3 Challengers on the set
4 Hong Kong legacy
5 Martial arts training and development
5.1 Jun Fan Gung Fu
5.2 Jeet Kune Do
5.2.1 Controversy over Jeet Kune Do
5.3 Jujitsu
6 1964 Long Beach International Karate Championships
7 1967 Long Beach International Karate Championships
8 Fights
9 Physical fitness and nutrition
9.1 Physical fitness
9.2 Nutrition
9.3 Physique
9.4 Physical feats
10 Philosophy
11 Awards and honors
12 Plagiarism accusations
13 Martial arts lineage
14 Death
15 Media
15.1 Biographical films
15.2 Books authored
15.3 Books about Bruce Lee, Jeet Kune Do or both
15.4 Bruce Lee documentaries
15.5 Selected filmography
15.6 Television appearances
15.7 Other media
16 See also
17 Notes
18 References
19 External links


Early life
Lee Jun Fan was born in the hour of the dragon, between 7 – 9 a.m., in
the Year of the Dragon according to the Chinese zodiac calendar,
November 27, 1940, at the Chinese Hospital in San Francisco’s
Chinatown.[3] His father, Lee Hoi-Chuen (李海泉), was Chinese, and his
Catholic mother, Grace Ho (何愛瑜), was of Chinese and German ancestry.[4]
[5][6][7][8][9] Lee and his parents returned to Hong Kong when he was
three months old. They were both Hong Kong and American citizens.[10]
[11]Lee Hoi Chuen was one of the leading Cantonese opera and film
actors at the time, and he was embarking on a year-long Cantonese
opera performing tour, with his family, amongst the US Chinese
communities on the eve of the Japanese invasion of Hong Kong during
the Second World War. As touring was an extremely profitable business
back then, Lee had been touring the US for many years. Although a
number of his peers decided to stay in the US this time to ride out
the storm, Lee decided to go back to Hong Kong after his wife gave
birth to their fourth child, due partially to homesickness and
partially to a miscalculation on his part. Within months, Hong Kong
was invaded (at the same time of the Pearl Harbor attack) and the Lees
lived the ensuing 3 years and 8 months under brutal Japanese
occupation. The Lee family managed to survive the war and actually had
done reasonably well. Lee Hoi Chuen would resume his acting career and
become even a bigger star during the ensuing rebuilding years. Bruce
Lee's mother Grace had an even more impressive background. She
belonged to one of wealthiest and most powerful clans in Hong Kong,
the Ho Tungs, the Rockefellers or Kennedys equivalent in Hong Kong.
She was the niece of Sir Robert Ho Tung, patriarch of the clan.
Indeed, Bruce Lee grew up in an affluent and privileged environment.
Education and family
After attending Tak Sun School (德信學校) located just a couple of blocks
from his home at 218 Nathan Road, Kowloon, Lee entered the primary
school division of the prestigious La Salle College (喇沙書院) in 1950 or
1952 (at the age of 10 or 12). In around 1956, due to poor academic
performance (and/or possibly poor conduct as well), he was transferred
to St. Francis Xavier's College (high school) where he would be
mentored by Brother Edward, a Catholic monk (originally from Germany
spending his entire adult life in China and then Hong Kong), teacher,
and coach of the school boxing team. In the spring of 1959, Lee got
into yet another street fight and the police were called.[12]
Confirming the police's fear that Bruce Lee's fighting opponent this
time had organized crime background and a possible contract was out
for his life, in April 1959 his parents decided to send him to the
United States to meet up with his older sister Agnes (李秋鳳) who was
already living with family friends in San Francisco.At the age of 18
and a half, Lee returned to the U.S. as a native-born citizen, with
$100 in his pocket and the titles of 1957 High School Boxing Champion
and 1958 Crown Colony Cha Cha Champion (or second place) of Hong Kong
[3], to further his education. After living in San Francisco for
several months, he moved to Seattle in the fall of the same year
(1959) to continue his high school education and to work for Ruby Chow
as a live-in waiter at her restaurant. Ruby's husband was a co-worker
and friend of his father. His older brother Peter (李忠琛) would also
join Bruce Lee in Seattle for a short stay before moving on to
Minnesota to attend college. In December 1960, Lee completed his high
school education and received his diploma from Edison Technical School
(now Seattle Central Community College, located on Capitol Hill,
Seattle). He then enrolled at the University of Washington in March
1961 majoring in drama, and likely also took courses in philosophy,
psychology, and various other subjects.[13][14][15] It was at the
University of Washington that he met his future wife Linda Emery, whom
he would marry in August 1964.Bruce Lee abandoned his university
education (3 years and never graduated) in the spring of 1964 and
moved to Oakland to live with James Yimm Lee (嚴鏡海, no relation to
Bruce Lee, and his Chinese surname was actually "Yim", a typical
blunder by the immigration officials when James' father was first
immigrated to the US). Twenty years senior to Bruce Lee and a well
known Chinese martial artist in the Bay area, James Lee would join
Bruce Lee to co-found the second Jun Fan martial art studio in Oakland
(the first one in Seattle). James Lee was also responsible to
introduce Bruce Lee to Ed Parker, royalty of the US martial art world
and organizer of the (Long Beach) International Karate Championships
at which Bruce Lee was later "discovered" by Hollywood.He had two
children with Linda, Brandon Lee (1965–1993) and Shannon Lee (1969-).
Brandon, who also became an actor like his father, died in an accident
during the filming of The Crow in 1993. Shannon Lee also became an
actress and appeared in some low-budget films starting in the mid
1990s, but has since quit acting.
Names
This article contains Chinese text. Without proper rendering support,
you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Chinese
characters.
Bruce Lee's Cantonese given name was Jun Fan (振藩; Mandarin Pinyin:
Zhènfán).[16] At birth, the English name "Bruce" was thought to be
given by the hospital attending physician, Dr. Mary Glover (or some
said it was one of the nurses). Though Mrs. Lee did not initially plan
on an English name for the child, she deemed it appropriate and would
concur with Dr. Glover's addition.[17] However, his American name was
never used within his family until he enrolled in the primary school
division of La Salle College (a Hong Kong high school) at the age of
10 or 12,[16] and later at another high school (St. Francis Xavier's
College in Kowloon), where Lee would come to represent the boxing team
in inter-school events.Bruce Lee also had three other Chinese names:
Li Yuen Yam[2] [李源鑫; Mandarin Pinyin: Lǐ yuán-xīn, as a family/clan
name (族名)], Li Yuen Kam [李元鑒; Mandarin Pinyin: Lǐ yuán-jiàn, as a
student name (學名) while attending La Salle College], and of course his
Chinese stage name 李小龍 [Cantonese pengyam: Ley5 Siu² Long4 (or Lee Siu
Loong); Mandarin Pinyin: Lǐ Xiǎolóng]. The Jun Fan name was originally
written in Chinese as 震藩, however this Jun (震) was identical to part
of his grandfather's name 李震彪, and was considered a no-no in Chinese
tradition. Therefore, Bruce Lee's name was changed to 振 which had the
identical pronunciation with 震 and virtually identical meaning. Also
of note is that Bruce Lee was given a feminine nickname, Sai Fung (細鳳,
literally "small phoenix"), which was used throughout his early
childhood in keeping with a Chinese custom, traditionally thought to
hide a male child from evil spirits. In Linda Lee's books, she
repeatedly cited that Jun Fan meant "return again" (back to the U.S.),
but Jun (振) really means "to invigorate" or "to shock", and Fan (藩) is
the well known Chinese abbreviation for the city of San Francisco (三藩
市).Bruce Lee's stage names 李小龍 was first suggested by Yuan Bu Yun (袁步
雲) when Lee played the title role of the 1950 Cantonese movie 細路祥
("Kid Cheung"). By then, Lee was already a 4-year child actor veteran
with two feature films to his credit in Hong Kong [he was also used as
an uncredited prop baby in a 1940 US-made Cantonese movie "Golden Gate
Girl" (金門女)]. Prior to his return to the U.S. in 1959, Bruce Lee would
have a respectful child actor career of 18 solid years averaging more
than two movies per year during his entire teenager life (age 10 to
18), acting alongside some the best Cantonese actors and actresses at
the time, and playing the central characters in some movies. Yuan was
the creator of the popular "Kid Cheung" comic strip, of which the
movie was based on, and also acted in the movie playing a son of the
character played by Bruce Lee's real life father Lee Hoi Chuen.It is
possible that the name "Lee Little Dragon" was based on his childhood
name of "small dragon", as, in Chinese tradition, the dragon and
phoenix come in pairs to represent the male and female genders
respectively. The more likely explanation is that he came to be called
"Little Dragon" because, according to the Chinese zodiac, he was born
in the Year of the Dragon. Many, including his wife Linda, also
stretched the "dragon" connection, a bit over-enthusiastically, by
suggesting that Lee was born during the "hour of dragon" (6-8 AM, as
claimed in Linda's books and many others). However, animal zodiac
normally does not apply to hours of the day, but when it does, the
period from 6 to 8 Am actually straddles between the "hour of
rabbit" (5-7 AM) and the "hour of dragon" (7-9 AM). Beside, the Little
Dragon name only came about long (10 years) after he was born.
Acting career
Lee's father Hoi-Chuen was a famous Cantonese Opera star. Thus,
through his father, Bruce was introduced into films at a very young
age and appeared in several short black-and-white films as a child.
Lee had his first role as a baby who was carried onto the stage. By
the time he was 18, he had appeared in twenty films.[3]While in the
United States from 1959–1964, Lee abandoned thoughts of a film career
in favor of pursuing martial arts. William Dozier invited Lee for an
audition, where Lee so impressed the producers with his lightning-fast
moves that he earned the role of Kato alongside Van Williams in the TV
series The Green Hornet. The show lasted just one season, from 1966 to
1967. Lee also played Kato in three crossover episodes of Batman. This
was followed by guest appearances in a host of television series,
including Ironside (1967) and Here Come the Brides (1969). A painting
of Bruce Lee as he appeared in filmIn 1969, Lee made a brief
appearance in his first American film Marlowe where he played a
henchman hired to intimidate private detective Philip Marlowe (played
by James Garner) by smashing up his office with leaping kicks and
flashing punches, only to later accidentally jump off a tall building
while trying to kick Marlowe off. In 1971, Lee appeared in four
episodes of the television series Longstreet as the martial arts
instructor of the title character Mike Longstreet (played by James
Franciscus). According to statements made primarily by Linda Lee
Caldwell after Bruce's death, Bruce would later pitch a television
series of his own tentatively titled The Warrior. According to
Caldwell, Lee's concept was retooled and renamed Kung Fu, but Warner
Bros. gave Lee no credit.[18] Instead the role of the Shaolin monk in
the Wild West, known to have been conceived by Bruce,[19] was awarded
to then non-martial artist David Carradine because of the studio's
fears that a Chinese leading man would not be embraced by the public.
[20] Books and documentaries about the show "Kung Fu" dispute
Caldwell's version. According to these sources, the show was created
by two writers and producers, Ed Spielman and Howard Friedlander, and
the reason Lee was not cast was in part because of his ethnicity but
moreso because he had a thick accent.[21]Not happy with his supporting
roles in the U.S., Lee returned to Hong Kong and was offered a film
contract by legendary director Raymond Chow to star in films produced
by his production company Golden Harvest. Lee played his first leading
role in The Big Boss (1971) which proved an enormous box office
success across Asia and catapulted him to stardom. He soon followed up
his success with two more huge box office successes: Fist of Fury
(1972) and Way of the Dragon (1972). For Way of the Dragon, he took
complete control of the film's production as the writer, director,
star, and choreographer of the fight scenes. In 1964, at a
demonstration in Long Beach, California, Lee had met karate champion
Chuck Norris. In Way of the Dragon Lee introduced Norris to moviegoers
as his opponent in the final death fight at the Colosseum in Rome,
today considered one of Lee's most legendary fight scenes.In 1973, Lee
played the lead role in Enter the Dragon, the first film to be
produced jointly by Golden Harvest and Warner Bros. This film would
skyrocket Lee to fame in the U.S. and Europe. However, only a few
months after the film's completion and three weeks before its release,
the supremely fit Lee mysteriously died. Enter the Dragon would go on
to become one of the year's highest grossing films and cement Lee as a
martial arts legend. It was made for US$850,000 in 1973 (equivalent to
$4 million adjusted for inflation as of 2007).[22] To date, Enter the
Dragon has grossed over $200 million worldwide.[23] The movie sparked
a brief fad in the martial-arts, epitomized in such songs as "Kung Fu
Fighting" and such TV shows as Kung Fu.Robert Clouse, the director of
Enter the Dragon, and Raymond Chow attempted to finish Lee's
incomplete film Game of Death which Lee was also set to write and
direct. Lee had shot over 100 minutes of footage, including outtakes,
for Game of Death before shooting was stopped to allow him to work on
Enter the Dragon. Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, a student of Lee, also appeared
in the film, which culminates in Lee's character, Hai Tien (clad in
the now-famous yellow track suit) taking on the 7'2" basketball player
in a climactic fight scene. In a controversial move, Robert Clouse
finished the film using a look-alike and archive footage of Lee from
his other films with a new storyline and cast, which was released in
1979. However, the cobbled-together film contained only fifteen
minutes of actual footage of Lee (he had printed many unsuccessful
takes[24]) while the rest had a Lee look-alike, Tai Chung Kim, and
Yuen Biao as stunt double. The unused footage Lee had filmed was
recovered 22 years later and included in the documentary Bruce Lee: A
Warrior's Journey.
Challengers on the set
Lee's celebrity and martial arts prowess often put him on a collision
course with a number of street thugs, stunt men and martial arts
extras, all hoping to make a name for themselves. Lee typically
defused such challenges without fighting, but felt forced to respond
to several persistent individuals.Bob Wall, USPK karate champion and
co-star in Enter the Dragon, recalled a particularly serious encounter
that transpired after a film extra kept taunting Lee. The extra yelled
that Lee was "a movie star, not a martial artist," that he "wasn't
much of a fighter." Lee answered his taunts by asking him to jump down
from the wall he was sitting on. Bob Wall described Lee's opponent as
"a gang-banger type of guy from Hong Kong," a "damned good martial
artist," and observed that he was fast, strong, and bigger than Bruce.
[25]Wall recalled the confrontation in detail:
"This kid was good. He was strong and fast, and he was really trying
to punch Bruce's brains in. But Bruce just methodically took him
apart."[26] "Bruce kept moving so well, this kid couldn't touch
him...Then all of a sudden, Bruce got him and rammed his ass with the
wall and swept him up, proceeding to drop him and plant his knee into
his opponent's chest, locked his arm out straight, and nailed him in
the face repeatedly."[27]
After his victory, Lee gave his opponent lessons on how to improve his
fighting skills. His opponent, now impressed, would later say to Lee,
"You really are a master of the martial arts."[26]
Hong Kong legacy
Sculpture of Bruce Lee at the Avenue of Stars, Hong KongThere are a
number of stories (perhaps apocryphal) surrounding Lee that are still
repeated in Hong Kong culture today. One is that his early 70s
interview on the TVB show Enjoy Yourself Tonight cleared the busy
streets of Hong Kong as everyone was watching the interview at home.On
January 6, 2009, it was announced that Bruce's Hong Kong home will be
preserved and transformed into a tourist site by philanthropist Yu
Pang-lin.[28]
Martial arts training and development
Lee's first introduction to martial arts was through his father, Lee
Hoi Cheun. He learned the fundamentals of Wu style Tai Chi Chuan from
his father.[29] Lee's sifu, Wing Chun master Yip Man, was also a
colleague and friend of Hong Kong's Wu style Tai Chi Chuan teacher Wu
Ta-ch'i.Lee trained in Wing Chun Gung Fu from age 13–18 under Hong
Kong Wing Chun Sifu Yip Man. Lee was introduced to Yip Man in early
1954 by William Cheung, then a live-in student of Yip Man. Like most
Chinese martial arts schools at that time, Sifu Yip Man's classes were
often taught by the highest ranking students. One of the highest
ranking students under Yip Man at the time was Wong Shun-Leung. Wong
is thought to have had the largest influence on Bruce's training. Yip
Man trained Lee privately after some students refused to train with
Lee due to his ancestry.[30]Bruce was also trained in Western boxing
and won the 1958 Boxing Championship match against 3-time champion
Gary Elms by knockout in the 3rd round. Before arriving to the finals
against Elms, Lee had knocked out 3 straight boxers in the first round.
[31] In addition, Bruce learned western fencing techniques from his
brother Peter Lee, who was a champion fencer at the time.[32] This
multi-faceted exposure to different fighting arts would later play an
influence in the creation of the eclectic martial art Jeet Kune Do.
Jun Fan Gung Fu
Main article: Jun Fan Gung FuLee began teaching martial arts after his
arrival in the United States in 1959. Originally trained in Wing Chun
Gung Fu, Lee called what he taught Jun Fan Gung Fu. Jun Fan Gung Fu
(literally Bruce's Gung Fu), is basically a slightly modified approach
to Wing Chun Gung Fu.[33] Lee taught friends he met in Seattle,
starting with Judo practitioner Jesse Glover as his first student and
who later became his first assistant instructor. Before moving to
California, Lee opened his first martial arts school, named the Lee
Jun Fan Gung Fu Institute, in Seattle.Lee also improvised his own
kicking method, involving the directness of Wing Chun and the power of
Northern Shaolin kung fu. Lee's kicks were delivered very quickly to
the target, without "chambering" the leg.
Jeet Kune Do
The Jeet Kune Do Emblem. The Chinese characters around the Taijitu
symbol indicate: "Using no way as way" & "Having no limitation as
limitation" The arrows represent the endless interaction between yang
and yin.[34]Main article: Jeet Kune DoJeet Kune Do originated in 1965.
A match with Wong Jack Man influenced Lee's philosophy on fighting.
Lee believed that the fight had lasted too long and that he had failed
to live up to his potential using Wing Chun techniques. He took the
view that traditional martial arts techniques were too rigid and
formalistic to be practical in scenarios of chaotic street fighting.
Lee decided to develop a system with an emphasis on "practicality,
flexibility, speed, and efficiency". He started to use different
methods of training such as weight training for strength, running for
endurance, stretching for flexibility, and many others which he
constantly adapted.Lee emphasized what he called "the style of no
style". This consisted of getting rid of a formalized approach which
Lee claimed was indicative of traditional styles. Because Lee felt the
system he now called Jun Fan Gung Fu was too restrictive, it was
developed into a philosophy and martial art he would come to call
(after the name was suggested by Dan Inosanto) Jeet Kune Do or the Way
of the Intercepting Fist. It is a term he would later regret because
Jeet Kune Do implied specific parameters that styles connote whereas
the idea of his martial art was to exist outside of parameters and
limitations.[35]Lee directly certified only 3 instructors. Taky
Kimura, James Yimm Lee (no relation to Bruce Lee), and Dan Inosanto,
are the only instructors certified personally by Lee. Inosanto holds
the 3rd rank (Instructor) directly from Bruce Lee in Jeet Kune Do, Jun
Fan Gung Fu, and Bruce Lee's Tao of Chinese Gung Fu. Taky Kimura holds
a 5th rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu. James Yimm Lee (now deceased) held a
3rd rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu. Ted Wong holds 2nd rank in Jeet Kune Do
certified directly by Dan Inosanto. James Yimm Lee and Taky Kimura
hold ranks in Jun Fan Gung Fu, not Jeet Kune Do; Taky received his 5th
rank in Jun Fan Gung Fu after the term Jeet Kune Do existed. Also
Bruce gave Dan all three diplomas on the same day, suggesting perhaps
that Bruce wanted Dan to be his protege. All other Jeet Kune Do
instructors since Lee's death have been certified directly by Dan
Inosanto.James Yimm Lee, a close friend of Lee, died without
certifying additional students. Taky Kimura, to date, has certified
only one person in Jun Fan Gung Fu: his son and heir Andy Kimura. Dan
Inosanto continued to teach and certify select students in Jeet Kune
Do for over 30 years, making it possible for thousands of martial arts
practitioners to trace their training lineage back to Bruce Lee. Prior
to his death, Lee told his then only two living instructors Inosanto
and Kimura (James Yimm Lee had died in 1972) to dismantle his schools.
Both Taky Kimura and Dan Inosanto were allowed to teach small classes
thereafter, under the guideline "keep the numbers low, but the quality
high". Bruce also instructed several World Karate Champions including
Chuck Norris, Joe Lewis, and Mike Stone. Between all 3 of them, during
their training with Bruce they won every Karate Championship in the
United States.[36]
Controversy over Jeet Kune Do
The name "Jun Fan Jeet Kune Do" was legally trademarked, and the
rights to Bruce Lee's name, likeness, and personal martial arts legacy
(including personal photos and countless personal effects and
memorabilia) were given solely to the Lee estate for copyrighted
commercial use. The name is made up of two parts: 'Jun Fan' (Lee's
Chinese given name) and 'Jeet Kune Do' (the Way of the Intercepting
Fist).
Jujitsu
Main article: JujitsuAt 22 Lee also met Professor Wally Jay, and began
to receive informal instruction in Jujitsu from him. The two would
have long conversations about theories surrounding the martial arts
and grew to be longtime friends.[37]
1964 Long Beach International Karate Championships
At the invitation of Ed Parker, Lee appeared in the 1964 Long Beach
International Karate Championships[38] and performed repetitions of
two-finger pushups (using the thumb and the index finger) with feet at
approximately a shoulder-width apart. In the same Long Beach event he
also performed the "One inch punch".[39] The description of which is
as follows: Lee stood upright, his right foot forward with knees bent
slightly, in front of a standing, stationary partner. Lee's right arm
was partly extended and his right fist approximately an inch away from
the partner's chest. Without retracting his right arm, Lee then
forcibly delivered the punch to his partner while largely maintaining
his posture, sending the partner backwards and falling into a chair
said to be placed behind the partner to prevent injury, though the
force of gravity caused his partner to soon fall onto the floor.His
volunteer was Bob Baker of Stockton, California. "I told Bruce not to
do this type of demonstration again", he recalled. "When he punched me
that last time, I had to stay home from work because the pain in my
chest was unbearable."[40]
1967 Long Beach International Karate Championships
Lee also appeared at the 1967 Long Beach International Karate
Championships[38] and performed various demonstrations, including the
famous "unstoppable punch" against USKA world karate champion Vic
Moore. Lee told Moore that he was going to throw a straight punch to
the face, and all he had to do was to try and block it. Lee took
several steps back and asked if Moore was ready, when Moore nodded in
affirmation, Lee glided towards him until he was within striking
range. He then threw a straight punch directly at Moore's face, and
stopped before impact. In eight attempts, Moore failed to block any of
the punches.[41]
Fights
Lee was not a professional competitor, but he did set his sights upon
the goal of being one of the fittest and strongest fighters of the
world, and he went through life earnestly attempting to achieve this.
Lee researched many arts in his life and used what he found was useful
and rejected what he did not. He also made subtle changes where he
could if what he found did not fit his specific requirements. He
tended to favor techniques where he could best take advantage of his
own attributes, be it his phenomenal speed, strength, elusiveness, or
power. As seen in his films, Lee shrieked and made high-pitched noises
while moving to throw opponents psychically off-center.[42] Lee did
say he could have beaten anybody in the world in a real fight.Dan
Inosanto said, "there's no doubt in my mind that if Bruce Lee had gone
into pro boxing, he could easily have ranked in the top three in the
lightweight division or junior-welterweight division."[43]Lee had
boxed in the 1959 Boxing Championships held between twelve Hong Kong
schools, a tournament in which he beat the three-time champion from
another school (a French boy).[44]
Physical fitness and nutrition

Physical fitness
Bruce Lee in Way of the Dragon in 1972Lee felt that many martial
artists of his day did not spend enough time on physical conditioning.
Bruce included all elements of total fitness—muscular strength,
muscular endurance, cardiovascular endurance, and flexibility. He
tried traditional bodybuilding techniques to build bulky muscles or
mass. However, Lee was careful to admonish that mental and spiritual
preparation was fundamental to the success of physical training in
martial arts skills. In his book The Tao of Jeet Kune Do, he wrote
Training is one of the most neglected phases of athletics. Too much
time is given to the development of skill and too little to the
development of the individual for participation." "JKD, ultimately is
not a matter of petty techniques but of highly developed spirituality
and physique.[45]
The weight training program that Lee used during a stay in Hong Kong
in 1965 at only 24 years old placed heavy emphasis on his arms. At
that time he could perform bicep curls at a weight of 70 to 80lbs for
three sets of eight repetitions, along with other forms of exercises,
such as squats, push-ups, reverse curls, concentration curls, French
presses, and both wrist curls and reverse wrist curls.[46] The
repetitions he performed were 6 to 12 reps (at the time). While this
method of training targeted his fast and slow twitch muscles, it later
resulted in weight gain or muscle mass, placing Bruce a little over
160 lbs. Lee was documented as having well over 2,500 books in his own
personal library, and eventually concluded that "A stronger muscle, is
a bigger muscle", a conclusion he later disputed. Bruce forever
experimented with his training routines to maximize his physical
abilities, and push the human body to its limits. He employed many
different routines and exercises including skipping rope, which served
his training and bodybuilding purposes effectively.[47]Lee believed
that the abdominal muscles were one of the most important muscle
groups for a martial artist, since virtually every movement requires
some degree of abdominal work. Perhaps more importantly, the "abs" are
like a shell, protecting the ribs and vital organs.He trained from 7
a.m. to 9 a.m., including stomach, flexibility, and running, and from
11 a.m. to 12 p.m. he would weight train and cycle. A typical exercise
for Lee would be to run a distance of two to six miles in 15 to 45
minutes, in which he would vary speed in 3–5 minute intervals. Lee
would ride the equivalent of 10 miles in 45 minutes on a stationary
bike.[48]Lee would sometimes exercise with the jump rope and put in
800 jumps after cycling. Lee would also do exercises to toughen the
skin on his fists, including thrusting his hands into buckets of harsh
rocks and gravel. He would do over 500 repetitions of this on a given
day.[49]
Nutrition
According to Linda Lee, soon after he moved to the United States, Lee
started to take nutrition seriously and developed an interest in
health foods, high-protein drinks and vitamin and mineral supplements.
He later concluded that in order to achieve a high-performance body,
one could not fuel it with a diet of junk food, and with "the wrong
fuel" one's body would perform sluggishly or sloppily. Lee also
avoided baked goods, describing them as providing calories which did
nothing for his body. Lee's diet included protein drinks; he always
tried to consume one or two daily, but discontinued drinking them
later on in his life.Linda recalls Bruce's waist fluctuated between 26
and 28 inches. "He also drank his own juice concoctions made from
vegetables and fruits, apples, celery, carrots and so on, prepared in
an electric blender", she said.[50] He consumed green vegetables,
fruits, and fresh milk everyday. Bruce always preferred to eat Chinese
or other Asian food because he loved the variety that it had. Bruce
also became a heavy advocate of dietary supplements, including:
Vitamin C
Lecithin granules
Bee pollen
Vitamin E
Rose hips (liquid form)
Wheat germ oil
Natural protein tablets (chocolate flavor)
Acerola — C
B-Folia

Physique
Lee's devotion to fitness gave him a body that was admired even by
many of the top names in the bodybuilding community. Joe Weider, the
founder of Mr. Olympia, described Lee's physique as "the most defined
body I've ever seen!" Many top bodybuilding competitors have
acknowledged Lee as a major influence in their careers, including Flex
Wheeler, Shawn Ray, Rachel McLish, Lou Ferrigno, Lenda Murray, Dorian
Yates and eight time Mr. Olympia Lee Haney.[51] Arnold Schwarzenegger
was also influenced by Lee, and said of his body,
"Bruce Lee had a very—I mean a very defined physique. He had very
little body fat. I mean, he probably had one of the lowest body fat
counts of any athlete. And I think that's why he looked so
unbelievable."[52]
A doctor who knew Lee once claimed that he was "Muscled as a squirrel,
and spirited as a horse" and fitter than anyone he had ever seen.[53]
Lee was known to have collected over 140 books in his lifetime on
bodybuilding, weight training, physiology and kinesiology. In order to
better train specific muscle groups, he also created several original
designs of his own training equipment and had his friend George Lee
build them to his specifications.[54]
Physical feats
Lee's phenomenal fitness meant he was capable of performing many
exceptional physical feats.[55][56][57][58] The following list
includes some of the physical feats that are documented and supported
by reliable sources.
Lee's striking speed from three feet with his hands down by his side
reached five hundredths of a second.[59]
Lee's combat movements were at times too fast to be captured on film
at 24 frames per second, so many scenes were shot in 32frame/s to put
Lee in slow motion. Normally martial arts films are sped up.[60][61]
[62]
In a speed demonstration, Lee could snatch a dime off a person's open
palm before they could close it, and leave a penny behind.[63]
Lee would hold an elevated v-sit position for 30 minutes or longer.
[57]
Lee could throw grains of rice up into the air and then catch them in
mid-flight using chopsticks.[51]
Lee performed one-hand push-ups using only the thumb and index finger
[58][64][51][58]
Lee performed 50 reps of one-arm chin-ups.[65]
Lee could break wooden boards 6 inches (15 cm) thick.[66]
Lee could cause a 300-lb (136 kg) bag to fly towards and thump the
ceiling with a side kick.[58]
Lee performed a side kick while training with James Coburn and broke a
150-lb (68 kg) punching bag[57][67]
In a move that has been dubbed "Dragon Flag", Lee could perform leg
lifts with only his shoulder blades resting on the edge of a bench and
suspend his legs and torso perfectly horizontal midair.[68]

Philosophy
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Bruce Lee
Although Lee is best known as a martial artist and actor, he majored
in philosophy at the University of Washington. He was well-read and
had an extensive library. His own books on martial arts and fighting
philosophy are known for their philosophical assertions both inside
and outside of martial arts circles. His eclectic philosophy often
mirrored his fighting beliefs, though he was quick to claim that his
martial arts were solely a metaphor for such teachings. He believed
that any knowledge ultimately led to self-knowledge, and said that his
chosen method of self-expression was martial arts.[69] His influences
include Taoism, Jiddu Krishnamurti, and Buddhism[70]. Lee was an
atheist. When asked in 1972 what his religious affiliation was, he
replied "none whatsoever," and expressed disbelief in God.[71]The
following quotations reflect his fighting philosophy.
"Be formless... shapeless, like water. If you put water into a cup, it
becomes the cup. You put water into a bottle; it becomes the bottle.
You put it into a teapot; it becomes the teapot. Water can flow, and
it can crash. Be water, my friend..."
"All kind of knowledge, eventually becomes self knowledge"
"Use only that which works, and take it from any place you can find
it."[72]
"Do not deny the classical approach, simply as a reaction, or you will
have created another pattern and trapped yourself there."[73]

Awards and honors
With his ancestral roots coming from Gwan'on in Seundak, Guangdong
province of China (廣東順德均安, Guangdong Shunde Jun'An), a street in the
village is named after him where his ancestral home is situated. The
home is open for public access.
Lee was named among TIME Magazine's 100 Most Important People of the
Century as one of the greatest heroes & icons, as an example of
personal improvement through, in part, physical fitness, and among the
most influential martial artists of the twentieth century.[1]
On 31 March 2007 Lee was named as one of History's 100 Most
Influential people, according to a Japanese national survey that was
televised on NTV.[74]
In 2001, LMF, a Cantonese hip-hop group in Hong Kong, released a
popular song called "1127" as a tribute to Lee.
In 2003, "Things Asian" wrote an article on the thirtieth anniversary
of his death.[75]
In 2004, UFC president Dana White credited Lee as the "father of mixed
martial arts".[76]
On 26 November 2005 the city of Mostar in Bosnia and Herzegovina
honored Lee with a statue on the Spanish Square, as a symbol of
solidarity. After many years of war and religious splits, Lee's figure
was to commend his work: to successfully bridge culture gaps in the
world. (One day before the unveiling of the statue in Hong Kong,
below).[77]
In 2005, Lee was remembered in Hong Kong with a bronze statue to mark
his sixty-fifth birthday. The bronze statue, unveiled on 27 November
2005, honored Lee as Chinese film's bright star of the century.[78]
A Bruce Lee theme park with memorial statue and hall has been
scheduled to be built in Shunde, China. It is expected to be complete
in 2009.[79]
As of 2007[update], he is still considered by many martial artists and
fans as the greatest martial artist of all time.[80]
On 10 April 2007 China's national broadcaster announced it has started
filming a 40-part series on Lee. Xinhua News Agency said China Central
Television started shooting "The Legend of Bruce Lee" over the weekend
in Shunde in Guangdong province in southern China. Shunde is the
ancestral home of Lee, who was born in San Francisco. It said the 50
million yuan (US$6.4 million; €4.8 million) production will also be
filmed in Hong Kong and the United States, where Lee studied and
launched his acting career. Chen Guokun, who plays Lee, said he has
mixed feelings about playing the role of the icon, Xinhua reported.
"I'm nervous and also excited, but I will do my best," Chen, who's
also known as Chan Kwok-kwan, was quoted as saying. Chen, best known
for appearing in the action comedy "Kung Fu Hustle," says Lee has been
his role model since he was a child and that he has practiced kung fu
for many years. The TV series, which is due to be aired in 2008, the
year Beijing hosts the 2008 Summer Olympics Games, appears to aimed at
highlighting Chinese culture in the run up to the event.[81]
In 2008, Plans for a Hong Kong museum dedicated to Lee are also in
discussion. Lee’s two-story Hong Kong home was to be sold in July for
as much as $13 million to benefit victims of the Sichuan earthquake,
but its philanthropist owner, responding to pleas from Lee’s fans,
decided instead to donate the property to the city so hopefully it can
be turned into a museum some day.[82]

Plagiarism accusations
Writings attributed to Lee published posthumously by his estate in
several volumes (including The Tao of Jeet Kune Do and the Bruce Lee
Library Series of books), have been found to contain scores of
incorrectly attributed material, including passages belonging to Alan
Watts, Helen Keller, Dear Abby, Fritz Perls, Benjamin Franklin, Hugh
Prather, Eric Hoffer, Jiddu Krishnamurti, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,
and dozens of other writers. These writings were published from hand-
written notes which Bruce Lee compiled throughout his life. While it
is fair to point out that Bruce Lee did not authorize the publication
of his notes after his death, one of the books, The Tao of Gung Fu,
contains at least one essay Lee submitted to his Freshman English
class at the University of Washington at Seattle as well as a draft of
a chapter for a proposed book by the same name. Both contain
plagiarized passages from the books The Way of Zen and This is It by
Alan Watts, creatively arranged and presented as the first-person
experiences of Lee.[83] In the book, Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew,
written by Lee's widow, Linda, Bruce Lee's former English teacher
recounts accusing Lee of plagiarizing. "I accused him once of doing
that and he sort of laughed," stated Margaret Walters. "He didn't
admit it, but he didn't deny it, either."[84]
Martial arts lineage
Lineage in Wing Chun / Jeet Kune Do
Sifu in Wing Chun Yip Man (葉問)
Other instructors Sihing Wong Shun-leung (黃惇樑) William Cheung
Notable Sparring partner Toe Dai Hawkins Cheung Note: He was Lee's
friend at the time.

Bruce Lee (李小龍)
Creator of Jeet Kune Do

Instructors certified by Lee to teach Jeet Kune Do
Dan Inosanto
Taky Kimura
James Yimm Lee (Died 1972)

Known students in Jun Fan
Gung Fu/Jeet Kune Do Brandon Bruce Lee
Jesse Glover
Steve Golden
Larry Hartsell
Dan Inosanto
Tommy Carruthers
Taky Kimura
Richard Bustillo
Jerry Poteet
Ted Wong
James Yimm Lee
Rusty Stevens
Numerous others...
Famous students taught
Jun Fan/Jeet Kune Do Chuck Norris[85]
Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
James Coburn
Joe Lewis
Roman Polanski
Lee Marvin
Stirling Silliphant
Steve McQueen
Mike Stone Numerous others...

Death
Bruce Lee buried next to his son Brandon in Lake View Cemetery,
Seattle U.S.AA foreshadowing of events to come occurred on 10 May
1973, when Lee collapsed in Golden Harvest studios while doing dubbing
work for Enter the Dragon. Suffering from full-body seizures and
cerebral edema, he was immediately rushed to Hong Kong Baptist
Hospital where doctors were able to reduce the swelling through the
administration of mannitol and revive him. These same symptoms that
occurred in his first collapse were later repeated on the day of his
death.[86]On 20 July 1973, Lee was in Hong Kong, due to have dinner
with former James Bond star George Lazenby, with whom he intended to
make a film. According to Lee's wife Linda, Lee met producer Raymond
Chow at 2 p.m. at home to discuss the making of the movie Game of
Death. They worked until 4 p.m. and then drove together to the home of
Lee's colleague Betty Ting, a Taiwanese actress. The three went over
the script at Ting's home, and then Chow left to attend a dinner
meeting.A short time later, Lee complained of a headache, and Ting
gave him an analgesic (painkiller), Equagesic, which contained both
aspirin and a muscle relaxant. Around 7:30 p.m., he went to lie down
for a nap. After Lee did not turn up for dinner, Chow came to the
apartment but could not wake Lee up. A doctor was summoned, who spent
ten minutes attempting to revive him before sending him by ambulance
to Queen Elizabeth Hospital. However, Lee was dead by the time he
reached the hospital. There was no visible external injury; however,
his brain had swollen considerably, from 1,400 to 1,575 grams (a 13%
increase). Lee was 32 years old. The only two substances found during
the autopsy were Equagesic and trace amounts of cannabis. On 15
October 2005, Chow stated in an interview that Lee died from a
hypersensitivity to the muscle relaxant in Equagesic, which he
described as a common ingredient in painkillers. When the doctors
announced Lee's death officially, it was ruled a "death by
misadventure."Dr. Langford, who treated Lee for his first collapse,
stated after his death that, "There's not a question in my mind that
cannabis should have been named as the presumptive cause of
death."[87] He also believed that, "Equagesic was not at all involved
in Bruce's first collapse."[88] Professor R.D. Teare, who had overseen
over 100,000 autopsies, was the top expert assigned to the Lee case.
Dr. Teare declared that the presence of cannabis was mere coincidence,
and added that it would be "irresponsible and irrational" to say that
it might have triggered Lee's death. His conclusion was that the death
was caused by an acute cerebral edema due to a reaction to compounds
present in the prescription pain killing drug Equagesic.[89] Another
doctor, Peter Wu's preliminary opinion was that the cause of death
could have been a reaction to cannabis and Equagesic. Dr. Wu would
later back off from this position however:
"Professor Teare was a forensic scientist recommended by Scotland
Yard; he was brought in as an expert on cannabis and we can't
contradict his testimony. The dosage of cannabis is neither precise
nor predictable, but I've never known of anyone dying simply from
taking it."[88]
The exact details of Lee's death are a subject of controversy.His wife
Linda returned to her home town of Seattle, and had him buried at lot
276 of Lakeview Cemetery. Pallbearers at his funeral on 31 July 1973,
included Steve McQueen, James Coburn, Chuck Norris, George Lazenby,
Dan Inosanto, Taky Kimura, Peter Chin, and his brother, Robert Lee.His
iconic status and untimely demise fed many theories about his death,
including murder involving the Triad society[90] and a supposed curse
on him and his family.The curse theory was extended to his son Brandon
Lee, also an actor, who died, 20 years after his father, in a bizarre
accident while filming The Crow at the age of 28. It was released
after his death and gained cult status, as his father's last film had
been, and did. (The Crow was completed with the use of computer-
generated imagery and a stunt double in the few but critical scenes
that remained to be filmed.) Brandon Lee was buried beside his father.
Media

Biographical films
In 1993 a biopic of Lee's life titled Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story was
released in which Lee was portrayed by Jason Scott Lee (no
relation).In April, 2007, Chinese state media announced that its
national broadcaster had started filming a 40-part TV series on Lee
titled The Legend of Bruce Lee to promote Chinese culture for the 2008
Beijing Summer Olympics.[91].On 22 August 2007, Fruit Chan announced
that he will make a film on Bruce Lee's early years, in Chinese,
entitled Kowloon City, produced by John Woo's producer Terence Chang,
and set in 1950s Hong Kong.Stanley Kwan stated that he was talking
with Lee's family to make a biographical film on Lee. Kwan says that
his film will look at how Bruce Lee was affected by the absence of his
father and how he brought up his own son, Brandon Lee.[92]
Books authored
Chinese Gung-Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self Defense (Bruce Lee's
first book)
Bruce Lee's Fighting Method (Published Posthumously)
The Tao of Jeet Kune Do (Published posthumously)

Books about Bruce Lee, Jeet Kune Do or both
Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew - written by his widow Linda Lee
Cadwell. This book served as the basis for the movie about his life,
Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story.
Bruce Lee: Words of the Dragon : Interviews 1958-1973 - written by
John Little
Bruce Lee: The Art of Expressing the Human Body - written by John
Little
The Dragon and the Tiger: The Birth of Bruce Lee's Jeet Kune Do, the
Oakland Years. by Sid Campbell
Bruce Lee Between Wing Chun and JKD - written by Jesse Glover
Bruce Lee: Dynamic Becoming - a book about Bruce Lee's philosophy
Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit - a biography by Bruce Thomas
Striking Thoughts - thoughts and quotes of Bruce Lee
The Tao of Jeet Kune Do - a book assembled posthumously that expresses
Bruce Lee's notes on martial arts and philosophy.
"On the Warrior's Path" by Daniele Bolelli (2003). The longest chapter
of this book about martial arts philosophy is on Bruce Lee's
philosophical legacy.
Unsettled Matters: The Life & Death of Bruce Lee - written by Tom
Bleecker.
Be Water, My Friend: The Early Years of Bruce Lee - a picture book for
children, written by Ken Mochizuki and illustrated by Dom Lee,
featuring an account of Bruce Lee's childhood and early manhood, which
the author says is basically factual.[93]

Bruce Lee documentaries
The Intercepting Fist (2001)
The Unbeatable Bruce Lee (2001)
Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey (2000)
Bruce Lee: The Path of the Dragon (1998)
The Immortal Dragon (A&E) (1996)
Curse of the Dragon (1993)
Death by Misadventure (1993)
Martial Arts Master (1993)
Bruce Lee, the Legend (1977)
Bruce Lee: The Man and the Legend aka Life and Legend of Bruce Lee
(1973)

Selected filmography
For a complete list of Bruce Lee's filmography seeMain article: Bruce
Lee filmography
The Big Boss (1971) (US title:Fists of Fury)
Fist of Fury (1972) (US title:The Chinese Connection)
Way of the Dragon (1972) (US titles:Return of the Dragon, Revenge of
the Dragon)
Enter the Dragon (1973)
Game of Death (1979)

Television appearances
The Green Hornet (26 episodes, 1966–1967) .... Kato
Batman (Episodes: "The Spell of Tut" 28 September 1966, "A Piece of
the Action" 1 March 1967, "Batman's Satisfaction" 2 March 1967) ....
Kato
Ironside (Episode: "Tagged for Murder" 26 October 1967) .... Leon Soo
Blondie (Episode: "Pick on Someone Your Own Size", 1968)
Here Come the Brides (Episode: "Marriage Chinese Style" 9 April
1969) .... Lin
Longstreet (4 episodes, 1971) .... Li Tsung
The Pierre Berton Show (1971) .... Himself

Other media
Bruce Lee – a video game published by Datasoft Inc under license in
1984.
Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story - a video game published by Acclaim
Entertainment in 1993.
Bruce Lee: Quest of the Dragon - a video game published by Universal
Interactive Inc. in 2002.
Be Like Water - a play by Dan Kwong, produced at East West Players in
2008, featuring the character, Ghost of Bruce Lee.
The characters from the Tekken video games Marshall Law and Forest Law
are based on Bruce Lee
Fei-Long, from the Street Fighter video game series is also based on
Bruce Lee.[citation needed]
Hitmonlee from Pokémon is based on Bruce Lee.
Liu Kang from Mortal Kombat is based on Bruce Lee.
Rock Lee from Naruto is based on Bruce Lee.

See also
Statue of Bruce Lee in Mostar
Bruce Lee statue in Hong Kong
Bruceploitation
Bruce Lee Library
John Little

Notes
^ a b Stein, Joel (1999). "TIME 100: Bruce Lee". Time.
http://www.time.com/time/time100/heroes/profile/lee01.html. Retrieved
on 2008-05-30.
^ a b Dennis, Felix; Atyeo, Don (1974). Bruce Lee King of Kung-Fu.
United States: Straight Arrow Books. ISBN 0-87932-088-5.
^ a b c "Bruce Lee Bio" (PDF). Kevin Taing Foundation. 2006.
http://www.bruceleefoundation.com/BruceLeeBio.pdf. Retrieved on
2007-07-06.
^ Little 1997
^ Vaughn 1986
^ Prashad, Vijay (2001). Everybody Was Kung Fu Fighting: Afro-Asian
Connections to the Post-Racial World. Beacon Press. pp. 127. ISBN
0807050113.
^ Little 1997, p. 73
^ Yang, Jeff (1997). Eastern Standard Time: A Guide to Asian Influence
on American Culture. Boston, New York: Meridian, Houghton Mifflin.
^ "Lee, Bruce, (1940-1960) Martial Arts Master and Film Maker".
HistoryLink. http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=3999.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ http://www.bruce-lee.ws/about_bruce_lee.html
^ http://everything2.com/e2node/Bruce%2520Lee
^ Burrows, Alyssa (2002). "Bruce Lee". HistoryLink.
http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=3999. Retrieved
on 2008-05-30.
^ "100 Alumni of the Century". University of Washington.
http://www.washington.edu/alumni/columns/dec99/j_o.html. Retrieved on
2007-08-06.
^ Little 2001, p. 32
^ Thomas 1994, p. 42
^ a b Lee 1989
^ Lee, Grace (1980). Bruce Lee The Untold Story. United States: CFW
Enterprise.
^ Lee (Cadwell), Linda, Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew, Warner Books,
1975.
^ Lee (Cadwell), op. cit.
^ Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey, documentary feature, 2000.
^ "From Grasshopper to Caine,

^ "Inflation Calculator". Bureau of Labor Statistics.
http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl. Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "Heroes & Icons". Time. http://www.time.com/time/time100/heroes/profile/lee03.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Bruce Lee, the Legend, 1977, Paragon Films, Ltd., 20th Century Fox
Home Entertainment
^ Little 1997, p. 167
^ a b Vaughn 1986, p. 153
^ Little 1997, p. 168
^ http://news.yahoo.com/s/nm/20090106/en_nm/us_hongkong_brucelee;_ylt=Ai_I4gyAqL99r8xboPbRUPVb.nQA
^ Thomas 1994, p. 14
^ "Interesting Questions, Facts, and Information". Fun Trivia.
http://www.funtrivia.com/en/Celebrities/Lee-Bruce-13857.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "Biography for Bruce Lee". IMDB. http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000045/bio.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "The Divine Wind". Bruce Lee Divine Wind. http://www.bruceleedivinewind.com/davismiller.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "WING CHUN GUNG FU". Hardcore JKD. http://hardcorejkd.com/wing_chun.php.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Bishop 2004, p. 23
^ Thomas 1994, p. 81
^ Little 2001, p. 211
^ "Dan Inosanto Talks about Professor Wally". Inosanto Academy.
Archived from the original on 2006-10-22.
http://web.archive.org/web/20061022141308/http://inosanto.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=102&Itemid=40.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ a b "2007 Long Beach International Karate Championship". Long Beach
International Karate Championship. http://www.longbeachikc.com/.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "Two Finger Pushup". Maniac World. http://www.maniacworld.com/bruce_lee_3.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Vaughn 1986, p. 21
^ Uyehara, Mitoshi (1991). Bruce Lee: The Incomparable Fighter. Santa
Clarita, California: Ohara Publications. pp. 27.
^ Little, John (1996). The Warrior Within - The philosophies of Bruce
Lee to better understand the world around you and achieve a rewarding
life. Contemporary Books. pp. 137. ISBN 0809231948.
^ Birchland, Bob (November 2007), ""The Truth of Boxing: A Critical
Look at Bruce Lee's Hand Skills"", Black Belt Magazine: 93,
http://www.blackbeltmag.com
^ Thomas 1994, p. 27
^ "Martial Art Disciplines at Hybrid Martial Arts Academy". Hybrid
Martial Art. http://www.hybridmartialart.com/Martial%20Art%20Overview/Martial_%20Arts_%20Overview.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Lee 1989, p. 70
^ Hatfield, Fredrick C. (1993). Fitness: The Complete Guide.
California: International Sport Sciences Association. p. 119.
^ Uhera, Mito. "Feats". Bruce Lee: The Divine Wind.
http://www.bruceleedivinewind.com/feats.html. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ Campbell, Sid (2003). The Dragon and the Tiger: The Birth of Bruce
Lee's Jeet Kune Do, the Oakland Years. California: Frog LTD. pp. 58.
^ Seal, Jack (2007). "How Did Bruce Lee Get Those Washboard Abs?". All
Bruce Lee. http://www.allbrucelee.com/article/how_did_bruce_lee_get_those_wash.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ a b c Little, John. ""WARM MARBLE" The Lethal Physique of Bruce
Lee". Mike Mentzer. http://www.mikementzer.com/blee.html. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ Little 1998, p. 18
^ "Bruce Lee Death". JKD Street Defense. 2007.
http://www.jkdstreetdefense.com/bruce-lee-death.html. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ Lee, George. "The Equipment Manager". All Bruce Lee.
http://www.allbrucelee.com/article/equipment_manager.htm. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ DM. "Feats". Bruce Lee: The Divine Wind. http://www.bruceleedivinewind.com/feats.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "Bruce Lee — Two Finger Pushup". Maniac World. http://www.maniacworld.com/bruce_lee_3.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ a b c The Intercepting Fist [DVD]. Sterling Ent. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ a b c d Little 1998, p. 22
^ Little 1998, p. 21
^ Vaughn 1986, p. 110
^ "Bruce Lee answers a challenge". Bruce Lee Divine Wind. 2007.
http://www.bruceleedivinewind.com/articles/brucechallenge.zip.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Little 1997, p. 66–67
^ Little 1997, p. 71
^ Little 1997, p. 82
^ Little 1998, p. 108
^ Little 1997, p. 87
^ Little 1998, p. 150
^ Seal, Jack (2007). "How Did Bruce Lee Get Those Washboard Abs?". All
Bruce Lee. http://www.allbrucelee.com/article/how_did_bruce_lee_get_those_wash.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Little, John (1996). The Warrior Within - The philosophies of Bruce
Lee to better understand the world around you and achieve a rewarding
life. Contemporary Books. pp. 122. ISBN 0809231948.
^ Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey at 31m45s
^ Little, John (1996). The Warrior Within - The philosophies of Bruce
Lee to better understand the world around you and achieve a rewarding
life. Contemporary Books. pp. 128. ISBN 0809231948.
^ Thomas 1994, p. 44
^ Lee, Bruce (1975). Tao of Jeet Kune Do. Ohara Publications. p. 25.
^ [100 Most Influential people: Hero Edition]. 2007-04-01.
^ Low, Alan. "Bruce Lee legend remains strong 30 years after his
death". Things Asian. http://www.thingsasian.com/stories-photos/2629.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Wickert, Marc (2004). Dana White and the future of UFC.
^ "Bruce Lee statue for Bosnian city". BBC. 2004-09-02.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/3620752.stm. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ "Hong Kong's honour for Bruce Lee". BBC. 2005-07-24.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/4711947.stm. Retrieved on
2008-05-30.
^ "Bruce Lee theme park to be built in China". Associated Press.
2006-11-26. http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/15922063/.
^ Chao, Arnold (2006-11-27). "The Greatest Martial Artist of All
Time". Yahoo!. http://dir.yahoo.com/thespark/4375/the-greatest-martial-artist-of-all-time.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "Chinese state TV begins filming 40-part series on Bruce Lee".
International Herald Tribune. 2007-04-10.
http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/04/10/arts/AS-A-E-China-Bruce-Lee.php.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Feng, Rex (2008-08-04). "The Legend Lives On: A Generation Later,
Bruce Lee’s Legacy is Still Kicking". AsianWeek. Retrieved on
2008-08-04.
^ Bishop 2004, pp. 136–138
^ Lee, Linda (1975). Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew. New York: Warner
Paperbacks. pp. 53. ISBN 0-446-78774-4.
^ Lee 1989, p. 83
^ Thomas 1994
^ Thomas 1994, p. 229
^ a b Thomas 1994, p. 228
^ Thomas 1994, p. 209
^ Bishop 2004, p. 157
^ "Report: Hong Kong director plans Bruce Lee biopic". International
Herald Tribune. 2007-08-22.
http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/08/22/arts/AS-A-E-MOV-Hong-Kong-Bruce-Lee-Movie.php.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ "Stanley Kwan talks Bruce Lee film". Film Stalker.
http://www.filmstalker.co.uk/archives/2007/05/stanley_kwan_talks_bruce_lee_f.html.
Retrieved on 2008-05-30.
^ Mochizuki, Ken; Illustrated by Dom Lee (2006). Be Water, My Friend:
The Early Years of Bruce Lee. New York: Lee & Low Books. pp. Author's
Note. ISBN 1-58430-265-8.

References
Bishop, James (2004), Bruce Lee: Dynamic Becoming, Dallas: Promethean
Press, ISBN 0-9734054-0-6 .
Lee, Linda; Bleecker, Tom (1989), The Bruce Lee Story, United States:
Ohara Publications .
Little, John (2001), Bruce Lee: Artist of Life, Tuttle Publishing .
Little, John (1998), Bruce Lee: The Art of Expressing the Human Body,
Tuttle Publishing .
Little, John (1997), Words of the Dragon : Interviews 1958–1973 (Bruce
Lee) .
Thomas, Bruce (1994), Bruce Lee: Fighting Spirit : a Biography,
Berkeley, California: Frog, Ltd. .
Vaughn, Jack (1986), The Legendary Bruce Lee, Ohara .
Dorgan, Michael. Bruce Lee's Toughest Fight [1]. 1980 July. Official
Karate

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Bruce Lee
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Bruce Lee

Bruce Lee at the Internet Movie Database
Bruce Lee Foundation
Sijo Bruce Lee
[show] v • d • e1966–1968 Batman television series

Cast Adam West (Batman/Bruce Wayne) · Burt Ward (Robin/Dick Grayson) ·
Alan Napier (Alfred) · Neil Hamilton (Commissioner James Gordon) ·
Madge Blake (Aunt Harriet Cooper) · Yvonne Craig (Barbara Gordon/
Batgirl) · Cesar Romero (The Joker) · Burgess Meredith (The Penguin) ·
Julie Newmar/Lee Meriwether (movie only)/Eartha Kitt (Catwoman) ·
Frank Gorshin/John Astin (The Riddler) · George Sanders/Otto Preminger/
Eli Wallach (Mr. Freeze) · Maurice Evans (The Puzzler) · Walter Slezak
(Clock King) · David Wayne (Mad Hatter) · Van Williams (The Green
Hornet) · Bruce Lee (Kato)

Characters created
for the series Egghead (Vincent Price) · King Tut (Victor Buono) ·
Chief O'Hara (Stafford Repp)

Crew Harve Bennett · Edgar J. Scherick · William Dozier · Eric Ambler
· Lorenzo Semple, Jr. · Stanley Ralph Ross · Charles Hoffman · Leslie
H. Martinson · Harry W. Gerstad · Charles B. Fitzsimons · Jack Martin
Smith · Walter M. Scott · Ben Nye · L. B. Abbott · George Barris

Vehicles and gadgetry Batmobile · Batboat · Batcopter · Batcycle ·
Batsuit · Bat phone · Batcomputer

Sets and locations Gotham City · Batcave · Wayne Manor · Notable sites
of Gotham City · Londinium

Related shows and films Batman (1966 film) · Legends of the
Superheroes · Return to the Batcave: The Misadventures of Adam and
Burt · The New Adventures of Batman · The Green Hornet

Music "Batman Theme" · Neal Hefti · Nelson Riddle · Billy May · Warren
Barker · Lionel Newman

Related articles Batman franchise media · Episodes (List) · Joker's
appearances in other media · Robin in other media · Barbara Gordon in
other media · Batusi · Camp · Deathtrap · Pop art

Persondata
NAME Lee, Bruce
ALTERNATIVE NAMES
SHORT DESCRIPTION Martial artist
DATE OF BIRTH 27 November 1940
PLACE OF BIRTH San Francisco, United States
DATE OF DEATH 20 July 1973
PLACE OF DEATH Hong Kong
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Lee"Categories:
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actors | German-American writers | Bruce Lee | Cantonese people |
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American Jeet Kune Do practitioners | Hong Kong actors | Martial arts
school founders | People from San Francisco, California | People from
Seattle, Washington | Shundenese people | University of Washington
alumni | Cause of death disputedHidden categories: Wikipedia semi-
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Forum » Mixed Martial... » BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD
1 2 3 ... 5 Next
Refresh Reply Replies: 46 Views: 515 2 months ago
Topic: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDBRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD keithnofear777
(422 posts)send to a friend Bruce Lee's fight record : 12 -0 -11ko's
1submission: 1955 Willam Chung Hong Kong Exibition- 1957 Wong Shun
Leung H. K .E. -- 1958 Pu Chang KO 2rd Referee Wong Shun Leung -- 1958
Yang Haung KO 1rd Amatur Boxing Tourtament -- 1958 Leigh Lo KO1rd
A.B.T -- 1958 Shen Yuen KO1rd A.B.T -- 1958 Gary Elms KO 3rd A.B.T
Finals --1960 unkown fighter Seattle KO by backfist in street fight --
1962 Seattle KO 1rd street fight Refree Jesse Glover --1963 unkown
fighter KO street fight -- 1964 Wong Jack Man Oakland Cali. This fight
is disputed most say it was a win for Lee others say it was a draw ---
1973 bruce won a fight with a 30 sec. KO also in 73 USPK Karate Champ
Bob wall tells of a fight on the set of enter the dragon. bob wall :
The guy was much bigger faster & stronger then bruce the kid was good
trying to punch bruce's brains in bruce methodically took him apart
the kid could not touch bruce the fight ended with bruce lee winning
by armbar . hope you all enjoy this piece of MMA history Bruce Lee was
the best MMA fighter who ever lived he clearly had KO power & was able
to beat a bigger stronger fighters with MMA skill way ahead of his
time . Bruce Lee's fight record : 12 -0 -11ko's 1submission: 1955
Willam Chung Hong Kong Exibition- 1957 Wong Shun Leung H. K .E. --
1958 Pu Chang KO 2rd Referee Wong Shun Leung -- 1958 Yang Haung KO 1rd
Amatur Boxing Tourtament -- 1958 Leigh Lo KO1rd A.B.T -- 1958 Shen
Yuen KO1rd A.B.T -- 1958 Gary Elms KO 3rd A.B.T Finals --1960 unkown
fighter Seattle KO by backfist in street fight -- 1962 Seattle KO 1rd
street fight Refree Jesse Glover --1963 unkown fighter KO street fight
-- 1964 Wong Jack Man Oakland Cali. This fight is disputed most say it
was a win for Lee others say it was a draw --- 1973 bruce won a fight
with a 30 sec. KO also in 73 USPK Karate Champ Bob wall tells of a
fight on the set of enter the dragon. bob wall : The guy was much
bigger faster & stronger then bruce the kid was good trying to punch
bruce's brains in bruce methodically took him apart the kid could not
touch bruce the fight ended with bruce lee winning by armbar . hope
you all enjoy this piece of MMA history Bruce Lee was the best MMA
fighter who ever lived he clearly had KO power & was able to beat a
bigger stronger fighters with MMA skill way ahead of his time .flag
this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD
def1one(1089 posts)send to a friend Preach to them Keith...........
Nuff said RIP to the Greatest Fighting,Mind and Spirit of Our time.
Those who don't know would do themselves a HUGE service to pick up
anything and everything about Lee. It would most DEF be good for your
mind, body and soul.Preach to them Keith........... Nuff said RIP to
the Greatest Fighting,Mind and Spirit of Our time. Those who don't
know would do themselves a HUGE service to pick up anything and
everything about Lee. It would most DEF be good for your mind, body
and soul.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE (1): BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE (1): BRUCE LEE : FIGHT
RECORD keithnofear777(422 posts)send to a friend Thanks man lots of
fans always wonder how he would have done in mma in this era i think
this info on him speaks for itself
- quoted from def1one on 11 Jan 2009, 10:19:20
Preach to them Keith........... Nuff said RIP to the Greatest
Fighting,Mind and Spirit of Our time. Those who don't know would do
themselves a HUGE service to pick up anything and everything about
Lee. It would most DEF be good for your mind, body and soul.Thanks man
lots of fans always wonder how he would have done in mma in this era i
think this info on him speaks for itself
- quoted from def1one on 11 Jan 2009, 10:19:20
Preach to them Keith........... Nuff said RIP to the Greatest
Fighting,Mind and Spirit of Our time. Those who don't know would do
themselves a HUGE service to pick up anything and everything about
Lee. It would most DEF be good for your mind, body and soul.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE (1): BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE (1): BRUCE LEE : FIGHT
RECORD keithnofear777(422 posts)send to a friend He would at least be
in the top 3 MMA fighter in the world He would at least be in the top
3 MMA fighter in the worldflag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD
amoneymand1989(667 posts)send to a friend he difently would be able to
knock a whole lot of them out that is fighting to today in MMA. he
difently would be able to knock a whole lot of them out that is
fighting to today in MMA.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD
herculestex(1185 posts)send to a friend i love talking about Bruce
Lee. thanks for the facts. i love talking about Bruce Lee. thanks for
the facts.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD
sharktank(475 posts)send to a friend Pocahontas would have been great
at Kiddle porn. Her dad was named Wahunsunacock hell - an Indian named
for his own cock.In the Powhatan language Pocahontas meant "little
wanton."She was married around 14 though some say as young as 12.She
later repented and found Christainity -- sounds like a whore to me who
has repented, based on this and using the same Bruce Lee Logic used in
this thread, Pocahontas would have been a star of Kiddie
porn.Pocahontas would have been great at Kiddle porn. Her dad was
named Wahunsunacock hell - an Indian named for his own cock.In the
Powhatan language Pocahontas meant "little wanton."She was married
around 14 though some say as young as 12.She later repented and found
Christainity -- sounds like a whore to me who has repented, based on
this and using the same Bruce Lee Logic used in this thread,
Pocahontas would have been a star of Kiddie porn.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD Totems
(998 posts)send to a friend I think Bruce Lee set the standreds for
MMA fighting. Isnt his JKD style is somewhat. Learn all aspects that
suit you and take what you need out of them and progress with constant
learning. Most MMA fighters cross train and use different camps with
different styles. I think Bruce Lee set the standreds for MMA
fighting. Isnt his JKD style is somewhat. Learn all aspects that suit
you and take what you need out of them and progress with constant
learning. Most MMA fighters cross train and use different camps with
different styles.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE (2): BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE (2): BRUCE LEE : FIGHT
RECORD BlkThunder(2806 posts)send to a friend This is excellent
stuff, Keith. Thanks for this post. This is excellent stuff, Keith.
Thanks for this post.flag this

Refresh Quote Reply 2 months ago
Reply: RE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORDRE: BRUCE LEE : FIGHT RECORD
keithnofear777(422 posts)send to a friend thanks for the replys glad
you all like this post thanks for the replys glad you all like this
postflag this

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mrliu918
2009-03-31 04:33:58 UTC
Permalink
There are hundred different forms of martial act and thousands of
martial act instructors to chose from, but there are only about 16
Olympic boxing champions in every eight years. You do have a choice!


http://www.kungfulibrary.com/hunggar.htm
http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/Martial_Arts/
http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/Martial_Arts/Kung_Fu/
http://dir.yahoo.com/Recreation/Sports/Martial_Arts/Kung_Fu/Shaolin/



BOOKS BY MASTER LAM SAI WING
GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN


"...This book will help to reach the mastership in Fighting Arts that
are not simple to understand. It has been written with the aim of
handing down the knowledge to disciples who are eager to find tutors
and expect to receive instructions."

Lam Sai Wing

Foreword by Lam Sai Wing



Moving Along the Hieroglyph , I Tame the Tiger with the Pugilistic
Art
The book scrutinizes an old canonical form (the Tao) of the Southern
Shaolin Kung Fu, the "Gung Gee Fook Fu".

According to the legend, the founder of the Hung Gar style, Hung Hei
Goon studied this form under the tutorship of Southern Shaolin's best
fighter, a Master of the Tiger Style abbot Gee Sin Sim Si.

The quintessence of Southern Shaolin Kung Fu - classical Fighting
Methods from the book GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN:

"The claws of a Black Tiger"
"A fierce Tiger hiding in a cleft"
"The Bull strikes with its horn, makes a turn and breaches the sky"
"The arm of the Golden Dragon"
"To tear out a Phoenix's eye"
"The Tiger striking with its tail"
"The two Dragons steal pearls"
"The Snake raises up its head"
"The Celestial Dragon wags its tail"
"The Golden Dragon carries gifts in its claws"
"The hand that calls out a Ghost"
and others...



This TAO includes main basic techniques and fighting methods of
Southern Shaolin Tiger Style, one of the most effective hand-to-hand
system of Chinese Fighting Kung Fu.


e- book GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN: experts' opinions about this
publication
Sifu Roger J Engmalm
"The original book itself is a
Sifu Andreas Garski
"Congratulation. For my opinion

President
pioneer of all martial arts books.
President and founder
the translation is very good.

and Chief instructor
It has been a great wish for me
of the German
The small comments together

Swedish Hung Kuen
to get a translation of this book..."
Hung Gar Kung Fu
with the translation helps to

Association
Association
understand the book better..."

www.hunggar.com
< in full > www.hung-gar.de
< in full >
Master Dr. Martin Sewer Ph.D. M.S. 5.DAN. European Chief-coordinator &
Chief-Instructor Switzerland
"...The new published book "Gung Gee Fook Fu Kuen" is enriching for
everyone interested in the
Hung Gar System, no matter whether you are a beginner or advanced
student."

www.shaolin.ch < in full >

International Chiu Chi Ling Hung Gar Kung Fu Ass. USA (Swiss
Branch) home.earthlink.net/~chiuchiling/



Order Now! Available in eBook



Lam Sai Wing. GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN:

Moving Along the Hieroglyph Gung, I Tame the Tiger with the Pugilistic
Art

Original edition: Hong Kong, 1956; translated from Chinese in 2002

Book Details

Paperback:
not available
FREE VERSION


View First 29 Pages

(free download):



Fragments from the book

(pdf/zip file, 909 kb, 29 pp.)


E-Book:
103 pages, 3.5 MB

Publisher:
Kungfulibrary.com (eBook in pdf, 2002)

Publisher:


Language:
English

ISBN-10:


ISBN-13:





Order eBook:



instant download pdf/zip file: 3.5 MB, 103 pp.

List Price: $19.95 Price: $13.96 You Save: $5.99 (30%)






CD on Demand

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of this e-book (for an additional charge of $9.95 + $3.00 for
shipping). For it, when filling in the online order form, please
choose the option "CD on Demand". More Detail...

Instant Download



The shopping cart is powered by ShareIt. You will be redirected to
Shareit.com to complete your checkout.

Customer Service USA (Language: English)
Phone: +1 952 646-5747 (for calls from outside the U.S.)
or +1 800 903 4152 (for calls from inside the U.S.)
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Spanish/ Portuguese)
Phone: +49 221 31088-20











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Your personal information is processed on our state-of-the-art e-
commerce system, so you can shop with confidence and peace of mind.







Hung Gar Kuen Hung Gar Kuen - "The Fist of Hung Family". This style
was widespread in secret societies Gelaohui ("The union of the Elder
Brother"), Sandianhui ("The Triad"), and others in the Southern China
in the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. It is remarkable for its
very high fighting efficiency. It takes its origin from the Southern
Shaolin Tiger style.

Fu Hok Seung Ying Kuen


"A Fierce Tiger Pressed Himself to the Ground", "Tiger's Eye,
Leopard's Blow", "The Hungry Tiger Catches a Ram", "The Tiger Goes Out
from his Den", "The Fierce Tiger Descends a Mountain", "The Tiger
Tramples On Wolves and Jackals", "Claws of the Black Tiger", "A Fierce
Tiger Pushes the Mountain", "The Dragon Hid, the Tiger Jumped Out",
"The Fierce Tiger Scratches Sand", " Tiger's Roar and Crane's Call",
"A Crane Beak", "One Leg of a Flying Crane", "A Hungry Crane Standing
on One Leg", "A Hungry Crane Catches Shrimps", "Crane Crest", "The
Monkey Steals a Peach", "The Wild Goose Sits Down on the Sandbank",
"Prancing Unicorn", "Butterflies Depart in Flight", "The White Horse
Hoofs", "Arhat Goes Out from the Cave", "Eight Drunken Celestials"...

Tiger & Crane Double Form

The book deals with the most popular and probably the most monumental
form of the Hung Gar Kung Fu style.

This form, known as "The Tiger and the Crane", was created in the late
19th century by Lam Sai Wing's teacher, an unrivalled master of Kung
Fu Wong Fei Hung*. The Tiger's extremely tough, fierce and lightning-
fast attack are balanced against and supplemented by the softer and
smoother techniques of the Crane. The "tough" and the "soft" combine
in a harmony.

A lot of attention is given to real-life combat application of the
Kung Fu techniques in question.

*Wong Fei Hung was one of masters in kung fu, best known in China and
in the West, a character of many books and films ("Once upon a time in
China" and others).

Author's Preface

(Lam Sai Wing)





Order Now! Available in eBook



Lam Sai Wing. FU HOK SEUNG YING KUEN :

TIGER & CRANE DOUBLE FORM

Original edition: Hong Kong, 1957; translated from Chinese in 2003

Book Details

Paperback:
not available
FREE VERSION

View First 22 Pages

(free download):



Fragments from the book

(pdf/zip file, 988 kb, 22 pp.)


E-Book:
122 pages, 3.9 MB

Publisher:
Kungfulibrary.com (eBook in pdf, 2003)

Publisher:


Language:
English

ISBN-10:


ISBN-13:





Order eBook:



instant download pdf/zip file: 3.9 MB, 122 pp.

List Price: $20.95 Price: $14.67 You Save: $6.28 (30%)






CD on Demand

In addition to the instant download version, you can order a CD copy
of this e-book (for an additional charge of $9.95 + $3.00 for
shipping). For it, when filling in the online order form, please
choose the option "CD on Demand". More Detail...

Instant Download



The shopping cart is powered by ShareIt. You will be redirected to
Shareit.com to complete your checkout.

Customer Service USA (Language: English)
Phone: +1 952 646-5747 (for calls from outside the U.S.)
or +1 800 903 4152 (for calls from inside the U.S.)
Customer Service Europe (Languages: German/ English/ French/ Italian/
Spanish/ Portuguese)
Phone: +49 221 31088-20











Payment Methods: Credit cards, Pay Pal, Bank/wire transfer, Cash,
Check.

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anyone, not even the supplier of the product that you are purchasing.
Your personal information is processed on our state-of-the-art e-
commerce system, so you can shop with confidence and peace of mind.








"The Iron Thread"

Priceless Heritage of Southern Shaolin Inherited from the Past and
Handed Down by Venerable Grandmaster Lam Sai Wing



Shaolin Kung Fu OnLine Library TID SIN KUEN

FOREWORD

by
Lei Sai Fai:
"...From my own experience I know that the most impressing thing in
TID SIN Qi Gong is that the physical strength of those who train
themselves can be increased by nine times. It is hard to believe for
those who did not practice this method..."

Lei Sai Fai

Iron Thread

The correct movement of Dong makes a fighter fast and powerful like
the tiger and gives the strength to move off a mountain...

/ "The Secrets of Pugilistic Combat of Shaolin Monastery"/


Southern Shaolin Qi Gong
"Each kind of Gong Fu has its own method of training and its own
secrets. This book just gives the most complete and visual guidance
for correct training in Tid Sin. It is indispensable for all who
practice Qi Gong and Gong Fu."

/Lei Sai Fai/

Provides a detailed description of the old Shaolin method of "Internal
Training". A master of the Iron Thread can withstand, with no
consequences, the strongest of blows, including ones with heavy
objects or cold steel arms, bend thick iron rods with his hands, and
his "rooting power" is so strong that he cannot be displaced by a
group of strong people. In addition, this wonderful method strengthens
all internal organs, bones, muscles and sinews. The entire body
thrives and rejuvenate.
Iron Thread form was created by Tid Kiu Sam (Iron Bridge III), one of
the best martial artists in the history of China. His real name was
Leung Kwan (1813-1886). He was one of the famous Ten Tigers of
Guangdong.

Tid Kiu Sam was born in the town of Nanghai, Guangdong province. He,
the third child in the family, became a disciple of a monk from the
Shaolin Temple, Gwok Yan. Gwok Yan was one of the greatest masters of
the Southern Shaolin Hung Gar Kuen school. He was known along the
whole length of the Yangtse river. Through the years Tid Kiu Sam
passed his knowledge down to one of his students, Lam Fook Sing. Some
time later Lam Fook Sing taught Wong Fei Hung (1847-1924) and the
latter Wong Fei Hung taught Lam Sai Wing (1860-1943).

The Iron Thread is considered as the highest form taught in the
traditional Southern Shaolin Hung Gar Kung Fu system. This method
belongs to a branch of “hard”, or fighting Southern Shaolin Qi Gong
(Chi Kung) and considered as “Internal Training”. A master of the Iron
Thread can withstand, with no consequences, the strongest of blows,
including ones with heavy objects or cold steel, bend thick iron rods
with his hands, and his "rooting power" is so strong that he cannot be
displaced by a group of strong people. In addition, this wonderful
method strengthens all internal organs, bones, muscles and sinews. The
entire body thrives and rejuvenate. Benefits of this training are
endless.






Order Now! Available in Paperback



Lam Sai Wing. IRON THREAD.

SOUTHERN SHAOLIN HUNG GAR KUNG FU CLASSICS SERIES

Original edition: Hong Kong, 1957; translated from Chinese in 2002 -
2007

Book Details

Paperback:
186 pages, 9 x 6 inches

View First 59 Pages

(free download):



Fragments from the book

(pdf/zip file, 3.01 mb, 59 pp.)


Publisher:
CreateSpace (Paperback, 2008)

Language:
English

ISBN-13:
978-1440475009


Order Paperback:



186 pages, 9x6 inches




List Price: $33.95 Price: $23.76 You Save: $10.19 (30%)





Shipping Options within the United States:

USPS Media Mail, USPS Priority Mail, USPS Express Mail, UPS Ground,
UPS 2nd Day Air. More Detail...
Usually ships within 1 business day





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Your personal information is processed on our state-of-the-art e-
commerce system, so you can shop with confidence and peace of mind.







TID SIN (Iron Thread): Performance by Ng Ping Kuen (Part I)
TID SIN (Iron Thread): Performance by Ng Ping Kuen (Part II)







Master Ng Ping Kuen talks about Iron Thread (Part I)
Master Ng Ping Kuen talks about Iron Thread (Part II)






LAM SAI WING
An article from "ZHONGGUO WUSHU ZENMING CIDIAN" - Dictionary "Well-
known Masters of the Chinese Wushu" edited by Chang Cang and Zhou
Lichang.
All rights reserved. All materials published on the web site Shaolin
Kung Fu OnLine Library and all the translations of the books are
protected by copyright and other intellectual property laws.

Please contact by e-mail:

***@addr.com


Short Historical Essay on Master Lam Sai Wing Written by his Disciple
Zhu Yu Zhai
Canonical texts of Shaolin Monastery


Ten Precepts Requirements 18 Wonderful 72 Secret Arts of QIGONG ( Chi
Kung ):
of Shaolin to a Shaolin Methods of Shaolin Monks from the Secrets of
the Use of Breath-Chi
Fighters Fighter Monks Shaolin Monastery in Martial Practice



© Copyright 2001 - 2009

Shaolin Kung Fu OnLine Library
e-mail: ***@addr.com


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Hyperlinked overview of martial art history, origins, self-defense,
sports, and technical aspects.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial_arts
Sherdog.com
Follow mixed martial arts competitions including UFC and PRIDE with
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FightingArts.com [read review]
Features news, articles, forums, products, and more on a wide range of
martial arts, such as karate, ju jitsu, judo, aikido, and sword arts.
www.fightingarts.com
Martial Arts Trickz
Showcases all kinds of special kicks, moves, and flips, combining
various martial arts like taekwondo, wushu, and capoeira with
gymnastics and acrobatics. Includes video clips and pictures.
www.bilang.com
Bullshido
Discussion forums devoted to exposing fraud, scams, and misinformation
in the martial arts.
www.bullshido.net
Fight Authority
Contains videos, information about different styles and techniques, as
well as a directory of dojos, fighters, books, and other martial arts
sites.
www.fightauthority.com
askSensei.com
Organized content in a question and answer format, with areas focusing
on health and fitness, mind and body, art and nature, training and
technique, and more.
www.asksensei.com
Martial Arts Planet
Features articles, interviews, club directories, and glossary covering
various aspects of international martial arts.
www.martialartsplanet.com
Martial Arts Network, The
Online resource for martial artists.
www.martial-arts-network.com
USADojo.com
Offers martial arts information including systems, styles,
organizations, and martial artists.
www.usadojo.com
Kun Tao
Free kuntao biweekly physical, mental and spiritual exercises, as well
as free healing through visualization and prayer consultation.
www.worldkungfu.com
American Center for Chinese Studies, The
Devoted to Shaolin Kung Fu, T'ai Chi, H'sing-I, Pa Qua, Chinese
medicine, Taoism, and other Chinese forms.
www.kungfu.org
United States Martial Arts Federation (USMAF)
Nonprofit confederation formed to promote mutual respect and
cooperation with the martial arts community.
www.usmaf.org
MMA Forum
Mixed martial arts discussion forum for UFC, Pride, K1, and other MMA
chat.
www.mmaforum.com
Koo Self Defense International
Offers a total body workout program for health, physical fitness,
street self defense, and martial arts training developed by Master
Roger Koo.
www.ksdi.net
Budokon
Dedicated to the holistic training method that combines the classical
martial arts, hatha yoga, meditation, and optimal nutrition all
designed to explore the maximum potential of the mind and body.
www.budokon.com
GrandMaster.cc
Comprehensive resource for all martial arts for the trained
professional and novice. Detailing history of discipline, books,
movies, and even humor.
www.grandmaster.cc
Cheng Hsin
Introduces a study of skill and consciousness incorporating principles
of Zen and martial arts.
www.ChengHsin.com
Bushido Online
Encyclopedia exploring the history and philosophy of Bushido. Includes
its relation to Kung Fu, Karate, and Kobudo.
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Kung Fu Science [read review]
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Tye's Kung Fu
Training tips, links, and more. Classes and seminars in Northern
Shaolin, Northern Praying Mantis, and Modern Arnis.
www.kungfu.cc
Chinese Kung Fu Wu Su Association
Nonprofit organization dedicated to the preservation of the Chinese
arts fostered by the warrior monks of Shaolin for more than 6,000
years.
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Bodhidharma@
Learn about Bodhidharma, the legendary Buddhist monk reputed to have
founded Zen Buddhism as well as martial arts. Includes sites about his
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dir.yahoo.com/.../Zen/Bodhidharma
International Kung Fu Federation
Develops and protects traditional Kung Fu worldwide.
www.internationalkungfu.com
Imua Shantung KunTao
Describes the martial arts system also known as the VanDerGroen
System.
www.kuntao.no
Nottingham University Kung Fu society
Taoist martial arts club for the development of a balanced self
awareness through mental, physical, and spiritual training.
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Lane's Tiger Crane Gung Fu Academy
Resource for Hung Gar and Choy Li Fut Kung Fu including basic
techniques, history, and products.
www.hunggar.org
Ching Yi Kung Fu Association (CYKFA)
Organization of fellowship for practitioners of the Ching Yi Kung Fu
system.
www.chingyikungfu.com
International New Kung Fu Organization
Conducted and managed by the high council.
www.newkungfu.org
Kung Fu U.S.A.
Offers instruction in 8 Step Praying Mantis Kung Fu, with pictures and
explanations of this martial art.
www.kungfuusa.net
KungFuRock
Video blog of kung fu videos features training videos, competitions,
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mrliu918
2009-03-31 05:42:17 UTC
Permalink
You do have a choice!

There are hundred different forms of martial act and millions of
martial act instructors to chose from in the world, but there are only
about 16
Olympic boxing champions in every eight years.

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BOOKS BY MASTER LAM SAI WING
GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN

"...This book will help to reach the mastership in Fighting Arts that
are not simple to understand. It has been written with the aim of
handing down the knowledge to disciples who are eager to find tutors
and expect to receive instructions."

Lam Sai Wing

Foreword by Lam Sai Wing

Moving Along the Hieroglyph , I Tame the Tiger with the Pugilistic
Art
The book scrutinizes an old canonical form (the Tao) of the Southern
Shaolin Kung Fu, the "Gung Gee Fook Fu".

According to the legend, the founder of the Hung Gar style, Hung Hei
Goon studied this form under the tutorship of Southern Shaolin's best
fighter, a Master of the Tiger Style abbot Gee Sin Sim Si.

The quintessence of Southern Shaolin Kung Fu - classical Fighting
Methods from the book GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN:

"The claws of a Black Tiger"
"A fierce Tiger hiding in a cleft"
"The Bull strikes with its horn, makes a turn and breaches the sky"
"The arm of the Golden Dragon"
"To tear out a Phoenix's eye"
"The Tiger striking with its tail"
"The two Dragons steal pearls"
"The Snake raises up its head"
"The Celestial Dragon wags its tail"
"The Golden Dragon carries gifts in its claws"
"The hand that calls out a Ghost"
and others...

This TAO includes main basic techniques and fighting methods of
Southern Shaolin Tiger Style, one of the most effective hand-to-hand
system of Chinese Fighting Kung Fu.

e- book GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN: experts' opinions about this
publication
Sifu Roger J Engmalm
"The original book itself is a
Sifu Andreas Garski
"Congratulation. For my opinion

President
pioneer of all martial arts books.
President and founder
the translation is very good.

and Chief instructor
It has been a great wish for me
of the German
The small comments together

Swedish Hung Kuen
to get a translation of this book..."
Hung Gar Kung Fu
with the translation helps to

Association
Association
understand the book better..."

www.hunggar.com
< in full > www.hung-gar.de
< in full >
Master Dr. Martin Sewer Ph.D. M.S. 5.DAN. European Chief-coordinator
&
Chief-Instructor Switzerland
"...The new published book "Gung Gee Fook Fu Kuen" is enriching for
everyone interested in the
Hung Gar System, no matter whether you are a beginner or advanced
student."

www.shaolin.ch < in full >

International Chiu Chi Ling Hung Gar Kung Fu Ass. USA (Swiss
Branch) home.earthlink.net/~chiuchiling/

Order Now! Available in eBook

Lam Sai Wing. GUNG GEE FOOK FU KUEN:

Moving Along the Hieroglyph Gung, I Tame the Tiger with the
Pugilistic
Art

Original edition: Hong Kong, 1956; translated from Chinese in 2002

Book Details

Paperback:
not available
FREE VERSION

View First 29 Pages

(free download):

Fragments from the book

(pdf/zip file, 909 kb, 29 pp.)

E-Book:
103 pages, 3.5 MB

Publisher:
Kungfulibrary.com (eBook in pdf, 2002)

Publisher:

Language:
English

ISBN-10:

ISBN-13:

Order eBook:

instant download pdf/zip file: 3.5 MB, 103 pp.

List Price: $19.95 Price: $13.96 You Save: $5.99 (30%)

CD on Demand

In addition to the instant download version, you can order a CD copy
of this e-book (for an additional charge of $9.95 + $3.00 for
shipping). For it, when filling in the online order form, please
choose the option "CD on Demand". More Detail...

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Shareit.com to complete your checkout.

Customer Service USA (Language: English)
Phone: +1 952 646-5747 (for calls from outside the U.S.)
or +1 800 903 4152 (for calls from inside the U.S.)
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Spanish/ Portuguese)
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Hung Gar Kuen Hung Gar Kuen - "The Fist of Hung Family". This style
was widespread in secret societies Gelaohui ("The union of the Elder
Brother"), Sandianhui ("The Triad"), and others in the Southern China
in the XIX - the beginning of the XX century. It is remarkable for
its
very high fighting efficiency. It takes its origin from the Southern
Shaolin Tiger style.

Fu Hok Seung Ying Kuen

"A Fierce Tiger Pressed Himself to the Ground", "Tiger's Eye,
Leopard's Blow", "The Hungry Tiger Catches a Ram", "The Tiger Goes
Out
from his Den", "The Fierce Tiger Descends a Mountain", "The Tiger
Tramples On Wolves and Jackals", "Claws of the Black Tiger", "A
Fierce
Tiger Pushes the Mountain", "The Dragon Hid, the Tiger Jumped Out",
"The Fierce Tiger Scratches Sand", " Tiger's Roar and Crane's Call",
"A Crane Beak", "One Leg of a Flying Crane", "A Hungry Crane Standing
on One Leg", "A Hungry Crane Catches Shrimps", "Crane Crest", "The
Monkey Steals a Peach", "The Wild Goose Sits Down on the Sandbank",
"Prancing Unicorn", "Butterflies Depart in Flight", "The White Horse
Hoofs", "Arhat Goes Out from the Cave", "Eight Drunken Celestials"...

Tiger & Crane Double Form

The book deals with the most popular and probably the most monumental
form of the Hung Gar Kung Fu style.

This form, known as "The Tiger and the Crane", was created in the
late
19th century by Lam Sai Wing's teacher, an unrivalled master of Kung
Fu Wong Fei Hung*. The Tiger's extremely tough, fierce and lightning-
fast attack are balanced against and supplemented by the softer and
smoother techniques of the Crane. The "tough" and the "soft" combine
in a harmony.

A lot of attention is given to real-life combat application of the
Kung Fu techniques in question.

*Wong Fei Hung was one of masters in kung fu, best known in China and
in the West, a character of many books and films ("Once upon a time
in
China" and others).

Author's Preface

(Lam Sai Wing)

Order Now! Available in eBook

Lam Sai Wing. FU HOK SEUNG YING KUEN :

TIGER & CRANE DOUBLE FORM

Original edition: Hong Kong, 1957; translated from Chinese in 2003

Book Details

Paperback:
not available
FREE VERSION

View First 22 Pages

(free download):

Fragments from the book

(pdf/zip file, 988 kb, 22 pp.)

E-Book:
122 pages, 3.9 MB

Publisher:
Kungfulibrary.com (eBook in pdf, 2003)

Publisher:

Language:
English

ISBN-10:

ISBN-13:

Order eBook:

instant download pdf/zip file: 3.9 MB, 122 pp.

List Price: $20.95 Price: $14.67 You Save: $6.28 (30%)

CD on Demand

In addition to the instant download version, you can order a CD copy
of this e-book (for an additional charge of $9.95 + $3.00 for
shipping). For it, when filling in the online order form, please
choose the option "CD on Demand". More Detail...

Instant Download

The shopping cart is powered by ShareIt. You will be redirected to
Shareit.com to complete your checkout.

Customer Service USA (Language: English)
Phone: +1 952 646-5747 (for calls from outside the U.S.)
or +1 800 903 4152 (for calls from inside the U.S.)
Customer Service Europe (Languages: German/ English/ French/ Italian/
Spanish/ Portuguese)
Phone: +49 221 31088-20

Payment Methods: Credit cards, Pay Pal, Bank/wire transfer, Cash,
Check.

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commerce system, so you can shop with confidence and peace of mind.

"The Iron Thread"

Priceless Heritage of Southern Shaolin Inherited from the Past and
Handed Down by Venerable Grandmaster Lam Sai Wing

Shaolin Kung Fu OnLine Library TID SIN KUEN

FOREWORD

by
Lei Sai Fai:
"...From my own experience I know that the most impressing thing in
TID SIN Qi Gong is that the physical strength of those who train
themselves can be increased by nine times. It is hard to believe for
those who did not practice this method..."

Lei Sai Fai

Iron Thread

The correct movement of Dong makes a fighter fast and powerful like
the tiger and gives the strength to move off a mountain...

/ "The Secrets of Pugilistic Combat of Shaolin Monastery"/

Southern Shaolin Qi Gong
"Each kind of Gong Fu has its own method of training and its own
secrets. This book just gives the most complete and visual guidance
for correct training in Tid Sin. It is indispensable for all who
practice Qi Gong and Gong Fu."

/Lei Sai Fai/

Provides a detailed description of the old Shaolin method of
"Internal
Training". A master of the Iron Thread can withstand, with no
consequences, the strongest of blows, including ones with heavy
objects or cold steel arms, bend thick iron rods with his hands, and
his "rooting power" is so strong that he cannot be displaced by a
group of strong people. In addition, this wonderful method
strengthens
all internal organs, bones, muscles and sinews. The entire body
thrives and rejuvenate.
Iron Thread form was created by Tid Kiu Sam (Iron Bridge III), one
of
the best martial artists in the history of China. His real name was
Leung Kwan (1813-1886). He was one of the famous Ten Tigers of
Guangdong.

Tid Kiu Sam was born in the town of Nanghai, Guangdong province. He,
the third child in the family, became a disciple of a monk from the
Shaolin Temple, Gwok Yan. Gwok Yan was one of the greatest masters of
the Southern Shaolin Hung Gar Kuen school. He was known along the
whole length of the Yangtse river. Through the years Tid Kiu Sam
passed his knowledge down to one of his students, Lam Fook Sing. Some
time later Lam Fook Sing taught Wong Fei Hung (1847-1924) and the
latter Wong Fei Hung taught Lam Sai Wing (1860-1943).

The Iron Thread is considered as the highest form taught in the
traditional Southern Shaolin Hung Gar Kung Fu system. This method
belongs to a branch of "hard", or fighting Southern Shaolin Qi Gong
(Chi Kung) and considered as "Internal Training". A master of the
Iron
Thread can withstand, with no consequences, the strongest of blows,
including ones with heavy objects or cold steel, bend thick iron rods
with his hands, and his "rooting power" is so strong that he cannot
be
displaced by a group of strong people. In addition, this wonderful
method strengthens all internal organs, bones, muscles and sinews.
The
entire body thrives and rejuvenate. Benefits of this training are
endless.

Order Now! Available in Paperback

Lam Sai Wing. IRON THREAD.

SOUTHERN SHAOLIN HUNG GAR KUNG FU CLASSICS SERIES

Original edition: Hong Kong, 1957; translated from Chinese in 2002 -
2007

Book Details

Paperback:
186 pages, 9 x 6 inches

View First 59 Pages

(free download):

Fragments from the book

(pdf/zip file, 3.01 mb, 59 pp.)

Publisher:
CreateSpace (Paperback, 2008)

Language:
English

ISBN-13:
978-1440475009

Order Paperback:

186 pages, 9x6 inches

List Price: $33.95 Price: $23.76 You Save: $10.19 (30%)

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TID SIN (Iron Thread): Performance by Ng Ping Kuen (Part I)
TID SIN (Iron Thread): Performance by Ng Ping Kuen (Part II)

Master Ng Ping Kuen talks about Iron Thread (Part I)
Master Ng Ping Kuen talks about Iron Thread (Part II)

LAM SAI WING
An article from "ZHONGGUO WUSHU ZENMING CIDIAN" - Dictionary "Well-
known Masters of the Chinese Wushu" edited by Chang Cang and Zhou
Lichang.
All rights reserved. All materials published on the web site
Shaolin
Kung Fu OnLine Library and all the translations of the books are
protected by copyright and other intellectual property laws.

Please contact by e-mail:

***@addr.com

Short Historical Essay on Master Lam Sai Wing Written by his Disciple
Zhu Yu Zhai
Canonical texts of Shaolin Monastery

Ten Precepts Requirements 18 Wonderful 72 Secret Arts of QIGONG ( Chi
Kung ):
of Shaolin to a Shaolin Methods of Shaolin Monks from the Secrets of
the Use of Breath-Chi
Fighters Fighter Monks Shaolin Monastery in Martial Practice

(c) Copyright 2001 - 2009

Shaolin Kung Fu OnLine Library
e-mail: ***@addr.com

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Nonprofit confederation formed to promote mutual respect and
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Introduces a study of skill and consciousness incorporating
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Training tips, links, and more. Classes and seminars in Northern
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Nonprofit organization dedicated to the preservation of the Chinese
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Organization of fellowship for practitioners of the Ching Yi Kung Fu
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Country GDP - per capita
1 Japan $ 33,100
2 Singapore $ 30,900
3 Brunei $ 25,600
4 Korea, South $ 24,200
5 Malaysia $ 12,700
6 Kazakhstan $ 9,100
7 Thailand $ 9,100
8 Turkey $ 8,900
9 Turkmenistan $ 8,900
10 China $ 7,600
33 East Timor $ 800

Source: CIA World Factbook



Compare the Richest Countries in Asia:
TurkmenistanTurkeyThailandSingaporeMalaysiaKorea,
SouthKazakhstanJapanEast TimorChinaBrunei BruneiChinaEast
TimorJapanKazakhstanKorea,
SouthMalaysiaSingaporeThailandTurkeyTurkmenistan



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The Source for World Rankings
Home
Richest
Most Populated
Largest
Most Expensive
Poorest
Cleanest
Richest People
Top 10 Lists
Countries with the Largest Economies
E-mail this page
Country GDP
1 United States $11,750,000,000,000
2 China $7,262,000,000,000
3 Japan $3,745,000,000,000
4 India $3,319,000,000,000
5 Germany $2,362,000,000,000
6 United Kingdom $1,782,000,000,000
7 France $1,737,000,000,000
8 Italy $1,609,000,000,000
9 Brazil $1,492,000,000,000
10 Russia $1,408,000,000,000
11 Canada $1,023,000,000,000
12 Mexico $1,006,000,000,000
13 Spain $937,600,000,000
14 Korea, South $925,100,000,000
15 Indonesia $827,400,000,000

Source: CIA World Factbook



Compare the Countries with the Largest Economies:
United StateUnited KingdSpainRussiaMexicoKorea,
SouthJapanItalyIndonesiaIndiaGermanyFranceChinaCanadaBrazil
BrazilCanadaChinaFranceGermanyIndiaIndonesiaItalyJapanKorea,
SouthMexicoRussiaSpainUnited KingdUnited State



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Poorest Countries in the World
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mrliu918
2009-04-07 09:01:47 UTC
Permalink
加拿大在二戰期間暗助日軍生產生化武器, 屠殺中國軍民。 二戰期間, 加拿大作為原材料供應大國, 大發戰爭財, 加拿大人不但沒有因為南京大屠殺和
日軍的侵華暴行覺醒, 反而貪得無厭, 兩頭做生意, 向日軍提供可以制造毒氣的原材料, 設備與知識, 導致抗戰失利和大量中國軍民死亡,成為侵華日
軍的重要支柱, 這種行為直到珍珠港事件后才告一段落。 今天, 很多加拿大人在家中生產大麻, 爭取吸食毒品合法化。 加拿大可算是名符其實的廉價毒
品, 化武, 毒氣制造基地。 有人認為加拿大人才是731部隊的老師, 毒氣彈的主謀, 這話確實有�
mrliu918
2009-04-23 09:37:05 UTC
Permalink
List of universities in Taiwan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of universities in Taiwan, categorised by city
and county:
Contents
[hide]
1 Changhua County
2 Chiayi City
3 Chiayi County
4 Hsinchu County
5 Hsinchu City
6 Hualien County
7 Ilan County
8 Kaohsiung City
9 Kaohsiung County
10 Keelung City
11 Miaoli County
12 Nantou County
13 Penghu County
14 Pingtung County
15 Taoyuan County
16 Taichung City
17 Taichung County
18 Tainan City
19 Tainan County
20 Taipei City
21 Taipei County
22 Taitung County
23 Yunlin County
24 See also


[edit] Changhua County
Chienkuo Technology University
Da-Yeh University
ChungChon Institute of Technology
MingDao University
National Changhua University of Education
[edit] Chiayi City
National Chiayi University
[edit] Chiayi County
National Chung Cheng University
Wufeng Institute of Technology
[edit] Hsinchu County
Minghsin University of Science and Technology
[edit] Hsinchu City
Chung Hua University
Hsuan Chuang University
National Chiao Tung University
National Hsinchu University of Education
National Tsing Hua University
[edit] Hualien County
National Dong Hwa University
National Hualien University of Education
Tzu Chi University
[edit] Ilan County
Fo Guang University
National Ilan University
[edit] Kaohsiung City
Wenzao Ursuline College of Languages
Kaohsiung Medical University
National Kaohsiung Hospitality College
National Kaohsiung Marine University
National Kaohsiung Normal University
National Kaohsiung First University of Science and Technology
National Kaohsiung University of Applied Science
National Sun Yat-sen University
National University of Kaohsiung
[edit] Kaohsiung County
Cheng Shiu University
Fooyin University
I-Shou University
Kao Yuan University of Technology
Shu-Te University
[edit] Keelung City
National Taiwan Ocean University
[edit] Miaoli County
National United University
[edit] Nantou County
National Chi Nan University
[edit] Penghu County
National Penghu University of Science and Technology
[edit] Pingtung County
National Pingtung University of Education
National Pingtung University of Science and Technology
Tajen University
[edit] Taoyuan County
Chang Gung University
Ching Yun University
Chung Yuan Christian University
Kainan University
Lunghwa University of Science and Technology
Yuan Ze University
Vanung University
Ming Chuan University
National Central University
National Defense University
National College of Physical Education and Sports
[edit] Taichung City
Asia University (Taiwan)
China Medical University
Chung Shan Medical University
Feng Chia University
Ling Tung University
Tunghai University
National Chung Hsing University
National Taichung University of Education
[edit] Taichung County
Asia University
Chaoyang University of Technology
Hungkuang University
Providence University
[edit] Tainan City
Kun Shan University
Hsing Kuo University of Management
Leader University
National Cheng Kung University
National Tainan University
[edit] Tainan County
Chang Jung Christian University
Chia Nan University of Pharmacy and Science
Kun Shan University
Southern Taiwan University of Technology
Tainan National University of the Arts
[edit] Taipei City
China University of Technology
Chinese Culture University
Ming Chuan University
National Chengchi University
National Defense Medical Center
National Taipei University
National Taipei University of Education
National Taipei University of Technology
National Taiwan Normal University
National Taiwan University
National Taiwan University of Arts
National Taiwan University of Science and Technology
National Yang Ming University
Shih Chien University
Shih Hsin University
Soochow University
Taipei Medical University
Taipei Municapital University of Education
Taipei National University of the Arts
Tatung University
[edit] Taipei County
Aletheia University
Fu Jen Catholic University
Huafan University
Mingchi University of Technology
National Taipei University
National Open University
St. John's University
Tamkang University
Tung-Nan Institute of Technology
[edit] Taitung County
National Taitung University
[edit] Yunlin County
National Formosa University
National Yunlin University of Science and Technology
Transworld Institute of Technology
[edit] See also
University alliances in Taiwan
List of colleges and universities by country
List of colleges and universities


[show] v • d • eUniversities in Taiwan

List of universities in Taiwan
University Alliances: TJNUS • TUS • USFO • UST • JPMAS

Northern Taiwan (Public) National Central University • National
Chengchi University • National Chiao Tung University • National
Defense Medical Center • National Defense University • National Taipei
University • National Taiwan Normal University • National Taiwan Ocean
University • National Taiwan University • National Taiwan University
of Arts • National Tsing Hua University • National Yang Ming
University • Taipei National University of the Arts

Northern Taiwan (Private) Aletheia University • Chang Gung University
• Chinese Culture University • Chung Hua University • Chung Yuan
Christian University • Fu Jen Catholic University • Ming Chuan
University • Hsuan Chuang University • Huafan University • Kainan
University • Shih Chien University • Shih Hsin University • Soochow
University • Taipei Medical University • Tatung University • Tamkang
University • Yuan Ze University

Central Taiwan Asia University • China Medical University • Chung Shan
Medical University • Dayeh University • Feng Chia University • Mingdao
University • National Chi Nan University • National Chung Hsing
University • National United University • Providence University •
Tunghai University

Southern Taiwan Chang Jung Christian University • I-Shou University •
Kaohsiung Medical University • Nanhua University • National Cheng Kung
University • National Chiayi University • National Chung Cheng
University • National Kaohsiung University • National Sun Yat-sen
University • National Tainan University • Tainan National University
of the Arts

Eastern Taiwan Fo Guang University • National Dong Hwa University •
National Ilan University • National Taitung University • Tzu Chi
University

Educational Universities Northern Taiwan National Taiwan Normal
University • National Taipei University of Education • National
Hsinchu University of Education • Taipei Municipal University of
Education

Central Taiwan National Changhua University of Education • National
Taichung University

Southern Taiwan National Kaohsiung Normal University • National
Pingtung University of Education

Eastern Taiwan National Hualien University of Education


Technical Universities Northern Taiwan National Taiwan University of
Science and Technology • National Taipei University of Technology •
Ching Yun University • Minghsin University of Science and Technology
• Lunghwa University of Science and Technology • Mingchi University
of Technology • Vanung University • China University of Technology
• St. John's University • Yuanpei University • Jinwen University of
Science and Technology • Takming University of Science and
Technology • Tungnan University

Central Taiwan National Yunlin University of Science and Technology •
National Formosa University • National Chin-Yi University of
Technology • Chaoyang University of Technology • Hungkuang
University • Central Taiwan University of Science and Technology •
Ling Tung University • Chienkuo Technology University

Southern Taiwan National Kaohsiung First University of Science and
Technology • National Kaohsiung University of Applied Sciences •
National Kaohsiung Marine University • National Pingtung University
of Science and Technology • Southern Taiwan University of Technology
• Chia Nan University of Pharmacy & Science • Shu-Te University •
Kun Shan University • Fooyin University • Cheng Shiu University •
Kao Yuan University • Tajen University • Tainan University of
Technology • Far East University • Chung Hwa University of Medical
Technology

Island Area National Penghu University


Category

[show] v • d • eList of universities in Asia

Sovereign
states Afghanistan · Armenia1 · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh ·
Bhutan · Brunei · Burma2 · Cambodia · People's Republic of China ·
Cyprus1 · East Timor3 · Egypt4 · Georgia4 · India · Indonesia · Iran ·
Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan4 · North Korea · South
Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives ·
Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia4 ·
Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Republic
of China5 · Thailand · Turkey4 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates ·
Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen

Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Aceh · Adjara1 · Abkhazia1 · Akrotiri and Dhekelia ·
Altai · British Indian Ocean Territory · Buryatia · Christmas Island ·
Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Inner Mongolia · Iraqi
Kurdistan · Jakarta · Khakassia · Macau · Nagorno-Karabakh ·
Nakhchivan · Ningxia · Northern Cyprus · Palestine (Gaza Strip · West
Bank) · Papua · Sakha · South Ossetia1 · Tibet · Tuva · West Papua ·
Xinjiang · Yogyakarta

Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1
Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions. 2
Officially known as Myanmar. 3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and
also known as Timor-Leste. 4 Transcontinental country. 5 Commonly
known as Taiwan.


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_universities_in_Taiwan"
rst0wxyz
2009-04-24 08:54:34 UTC
Permalink
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
n***@millions.com
2009-04-24 08:58:41 UTC
Permalink
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
rst0wxyz
2009-04-24 13:20:52 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
It's no silly wish.
Post by n***@millions.com
be a leader?
I am the leader.
Post by n***@millions.com
Ain't nobody following.
Yes, many have followed.
n***@millions.com
2009-04-24 16:34:55 UTC
Permalink
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 06:20:52 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
It's no silly wish.
Post by n***@millions.com
be a leader?
I am the leader.
Post by n***@millions.com
Ain't nobody following.
Yes, many have followed.
Have? Past tense.

Carry on.
Tienshen
2009-04-24 16:54:44 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
n***@millions.com
2009-04-24 17:17:46 UTC
Permalink
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! abd with
small steps.
Tienshen
2009-04-24 17:36:04 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! abd with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
n***@millions.com
2009-04-24 18:07:34 UTC
Permalink
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
Tienshen
2009-04-24 18:35:52 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||

Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
n***@millions.com
2009-04-24 18:40:26 UTC
Permalink
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||
Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
Pink? Large duck? I shall enter where I choose in the usenet cyber BS.
rst0wxyz
2009-04-24 18:47:08 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||
Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
Pink? Large duck? I shall enter where I choose in the usenet cyber BS.
I see you got my responses, giant pink duck, ot is it just a duckling?
n***@millions.com
2009-04-24 23:13:51 UTC
Permalink
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 11:47:08 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||
Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
Pink? Large duck? I shall enter where I choose in the usenet cyber BS.
I see you got my responses, giant pink duck, ot is it just a duckling?
Whatever. It could be a Falmingo.
rst0wxyz
2009-04-24 23:28:06 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 11:47:08 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||
Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
Pink? Large duck? I shall enter where I choose in the usenet cyber BS.
I see you got my responses, giant pink duck, ot is it just a duckling?
Whatever. It could be a Falmingo.
Hummmm!! I wonder what color and shape this "Falmingo" is.
Perhaps, could you draw us a picture of this "Falmingo"?
n***@millions.com
2009-04-25 00:51:15 UTC
Permalink
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 16:28:06 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 11:47:08 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||
Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
Pink? Large duck? I shall enter where I choose in the usenet cyber BS.
I see you got my responses, giant pink duck, ot is it just a duckling?
Whatever. It could be a Falmingo.
Hummmm!! I wonder what color and shape this "Falmingo" is.
Perhaps, could you draw us a picture of this "Falmingo"?
Actually, it's Fall Mingo. :)
rst0wxyz
2009-04-26 03:58:33 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 16:28:06 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Hummmm!!  I wonder what color and shape this "Falmingo" is.
Perhaps, could you draw us a picture of this "Falmingo"?
Actually, it's Fall Mingo.
Fall Mingo
Winter welcome
Spring forward
Summner mango.
How sweet!!!
n***@millions.com
2009-04-26 04:34:20 UTC
Permalink
On Sat, 25 Apr 2009 20:58:33 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 16:28:06 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Hummmm!!  I wonder what color and shape this "Falmingo" is.
Perhaps, could you draw us a picture of this "Falmingo"?
Actually, it's Fall Mingo.
Fall Mingo
Winter welcome
Spring forward
Summner mango.
How sweet!!!
thank you. May I borrow your pros to show my wife?

DCI
rst0wxyz
2009-04-26 04:38:57 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
On Sat, 25 Apr 2009 20:58:33 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 16:28:06 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Hummmm!!  I wonder what color and shape this "Falmingo" is.
Perhaps, could you draw us a picture of this "Falmingo"?
Actually, it's Fall Mingo.
Fall Mingo
Winter welcome
Spring forward
Summner mango.
How sweet!!!
thank you. May I borrow your pros to show my wife?
DCI- Hide quoted text -
- Show quoted text -
You are welcome
Comes summer
More than a 100
Where to cool off?
mrliu918
2009-06-03 08:46:10 UTC
Permalink
Travel warning: 1990 incident and the outcome of Olympic Games in
subsequent years.

Travel warning for participants of 1990 incident

Phone calls in Asia revealed Russian discontent that USSR did not got
any gold medal in the 1992 Olympic Boxing because of the 1990
incident; while USA did not have as many as gold medals it supposed
to receive for the following ten years as a result of the 1990
incident.
However, there are not any reason to validate their claim that the
1990 incident in any way affect the outcome of Olympic Game in
subsequent years. The fananticism of callers and their obsession in
Cold War politics are the justification for me to issue travel
warning
for all the participants of 1990 incident.


Information from www.olympic.org could be unreliable due to internet
hacking with malicious intent and corruption practice in phone
company. Readers and participants of 1990 incident are encouraged to
verify content on internet from multiple and creditable sources
through secure communication channels.


P.S. Lee and Leung are thieves of the century and both deserve to die
in the ring.


http://www.olympic.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing_at_the_Summer_Olympics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_socialist_countries
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_communist_states
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_members_of_NATO
http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/first_world.htm

www.olympic.org - Site Officiel du Mouvement Olympique
OLYMPIC MEDAL WINNERS
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Olympic Games Discipline Events Med. Nation Name / Team
Beijing 2008 Boxing 48kg (light flywieght) Men ZOU, Shiming
Beijing 2008 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men ZHANG,
Xiaoping
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Barcelona 1992 Boxing + 91kg (super heavyweight) Men BALADO
MENDEZ, Roberto
Barcelona 1992 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men MARCELO
GARCIA,
Rogelio
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men CHOI, Chol Su
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men CASAMAYOR
JOHNSON, Joel
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men TEWS,
Andreas
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men DE LA HOYA,
Oscar
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men VINENT,
Hector
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men CARRUTH,
Michael
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men LEMUS
GARCIA, Juan Carlos
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 71-75kg Men HERNANDEZ ASCUY, Ariel
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men MAY,
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Barcelona 1992 Boxing 81 - 91kg (heavyweight) Men SAVON, Felix
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[edit] Medal Table
Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total
1 United States (USA) 48 23 38 109
2 Cuba (CUB) 32 19 12 63
3 Italy (ITA) 15 13 16 44
4 Soviet Union (URS) 14 19 18 51
5 Great Britain (GBR) 14 11 23 48
6 Hungary (HUN) 10 2 8 20
7 Poland (POL) 8 9 26 43
8 Russia (RUS) 8 3 9 20
9 Argentina (ARG) 7 7 10 24
10 South Africa (RSA) 6 4 9 19
11 Kazakhstan (KAZ) 5 4 4 13
12 East Germany (GDR) 5 2 6 13
13 Germany (GER) 4 9 9 22
14 France (FRA) 4 7 8 19
15 Bulgaria (BUL) 4 5 8 17
16 Thailand (THA) 4 3 6 13
17 Canada (CAN) 3 7 7 17
18 South Korea (KOR) 3 6 10 19
19 Yugoslavia (YUG) 3 2 6 11
20 Czechoslovakia (TCH) 3 1 2 6
21 Mexico (MEX) 2 3 7 12
22 North Korea (PRK) 2 3 3 8
23 Ukraine (UKR) 2 2 5 9
24 Finland (FIN) 2 1 11 14
25 China (CHN) 2 1 2 5
26 Romania (ROU) 1 9 15 25
27 Denmark (DEN) 1 5 6 12
28 Ireland (IRL) 1 4 7 12
29 Germany (EUA) 1 3 2 6
30 Norway (NOR) 1 2 2 5
Venezuela (VEN) 1 2 2 5
32 Kenya (KEN) 1 1 5 7
33 Netherlands (NED) 1 1 4 6
34 Belgium (BEL) 1 1 2 4
Mongolia (MGL) 1 1 2 4
36 New Zealand (NZL) 1 1 1 3
37 Algeria (ALG) 1 0 5 6
West Germany (FRG) 1 0 5 6
Uzbekistan (UZB) 1 0 5 6
40 Japan (JPN) 1 0 2 3
41 Dominican Republic (DOM) 1 0 1 2
42 Sweden (SWE) 0 5 6 11
43 Nigeria (NGR) 0 3 3 6
44 Uganda (UGA) 0 3 1 4
45 Philippines (PHI) 0 2 3 5
Turkey (TUR) 0 2 3 5
47 Spain (ESP) 0 2 2 4
48 Belarus (BLR) 0 2 0 2
49 Puerto Rico (PUR) 0 1 5 6
50 Australia (AUS) 0 1 3 4
Egypt (EGY) 0 1 3 4
52 Chile (CHI) 0 1 2 3
Ghana (GHA) 0 1 2 3
54 Cameroon (CMR) 0 1 1 2
Unified Team (EUN) 0 1 1 2
56 Australasia (ANZ) 0 1 0 1
Czech Republic (CZE) 0 1 0 1
Estonia (EST) 0 1 0 1
Tonga (TGA) 0 1 0 1
60 Azerbaijan (AZE) 0 0 4 4
61 Colombia (COL) 0 0 3 3
Morocco (MAR) 0 0 3 3
63 Tunisia (TUN) 0 0 2 2
Moldova (MDA) 0 0 2 2
65 Armenia (ARM) 0 0 1 1
Bermuda (BER) 0 0 1 1
Brazil (BRA) 0 0 1 1
Georgia (GEO) 0 0 1 1
Guyana (GUY) 0 0 1 1
India (IND) 0 0 1 1
Mauritius (MRI) 0 0 1 1
Niger (NIG) 0 0 1 1
Pakistan (PAK) 0 0 1 1
Syria (SYR) 0 0 1 1
Uruguay (URU) 0 0 1 1
Zambia (ZAM) 0 0 1 1
Total 226 226 390 842



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_socialist_countries
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_current_communist_states
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state


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List of socialist countries
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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This article or section has multiple issues. Please help improve the
article or discuss these issues on the talk page.
It needs additional references or sources for verification. Tagged
since October 2008.

Its neutrality is disputed. Tagged since February 2008.


This article's factual accuracy is disputed. Please see the relevant
discussion on the talk page. (March 2008)
This article may contain original research or unverified claims.
Please improve the article by adding references. See the talk page for
details. (February 2008)



This is a combined map of all countries who declared themselves to be
socialist states under any definition, color-coded for the number of
years that the territory in question claimed to be a socialist:
Over 60 years

50 - 60 years

40 - 50 years

30 - 40 years

20 - 30 years

10 - 20 years

Under 10 years
Click on image to magnify.


A map of all countries who declared themselves to be socialist states,
under any definition, at some point in their history.
This is a list of countries, past and present, that declared
themselves socialist either in their names or their constitutions. No
other criteria are used; thus, some or all of these countries may not
fit any specific definition of socialism. Their only common feature is
using the label "socialist" for themselves, under any interpretation.
There are few, if any, definitions of socialism that could fit all the
countries on this list. However, most definitions of socialism fit at
least some of these countries at some points in their histories.
There are many countries that have been ruled by socialist political
parties for extended periods of time without ever adopting socialism
as an official ideology in their names or constitutions. Such
countries are not listed here. However, see the article on the
Socialist International for an up-to-date list of countries that are
currently ruled by member parties of the SI (the largest present day
organization of socialist political parties).
Conversely, there are some countries that maintain constitutional
references to socialism without being currently ruled by a socialist
political party. Those countries are included on this list.
Contents
[hide]
1 Marxist-Leninist
1.1 Current
1.2 Former
2 Non-Marxist-Leninist
2.1 Current
2.1.1 Constitutional references
2.1.2 Informal
2.2 Former
2.3 Former states
3 Ephemeral
4 See also
5 Notes


[edit] Marxist-Leninist
These countries known as "Communist states" in the West, because their
ruling parties generally use the name "Communist Party of [country]."
However, the countries themselves are referred to as socialist
republics, not communist, in their own constitutions. They are defined
by a form of government in which the state operates under a one-party
system and declares allegiance to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism. In
accordance with Marxism-Leninism, the constitutions of these countries
claim that all power belongs to the working class, that a democratic
dictatorship of the proletariat has been implemented within their
borders, and that they are building socialism, with the goal of
achieving communism one day.
[edit] Current
Main article: List of current communist states


A map showing states who currently declare themselves to be Marxist-
Leninist.
People's Republic of China - (Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó) (since
October 1, 1949)[1]
Cuba - Republic of Cuba (República de Cuba) (since January 1, 1959)
[2]
Laos - Lao People's Democratic Republic. (Sathalanalat Paxathipatai
Paxaxon Lao) (since December 2, 1975)[citation needed]
North Korea - Democratic People's Republic of Korea (Chosŏn Minjujuŭi
Inmin Konghwaguk) (since 1948) [3] (see Constitution of North Korea)
Vietnam - Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cộng hòa Xã hội Chủ nghĩa
Việt Nam) (officially in unified Vietnam since July 2, 1976, but in
the north since 1954) [4]
[edit] Former


A map of countries who declared themselves to be socialist states
under the Marxist-Leninist definition (in the west known as,
"Communist states") at some point in their history. The map uses
present-day borders. Note that not all of these countries were Marxist-
Leninist at the same time.
Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (April 27, 1978 - April 28, 1992)
Socialist People's Republic of Albania (Albanian Republika Popullore
Socialiste e Shqipërisë/Albanian Republika Popullore e Shqipërisë )
(January 1, 1946 - March 22, 1992)
People's Republic of Angola (República Popular de Angola) (November
11, 1975 - August 27, 1992)
People's Republic of Benin (République Populaire du Bénin) (November
30, 1975 - March 1, 1990)
People's Republic of Bulgaria (Narodna Republika Balgariya)
(September 15, 1946 - December 7, 1990)
People's Republic of the Congo (République Populaire du Congo)
(January 3, 1970 - March 15, 1992)
Republic of Czechoslovakia (Československá republika) (May 9, 1948 -
July 11, 1960)
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (Československá socialistická
republika) (July 11, 1960 - March 29, 1990)
File:Flag of Ethiopia (1987-1991).png People's Democratic Republic of
Ethiopia (September 10, 1987 - May 27, 1991)
Finnish Democratic Republic (Suomen Kansanvaltainen Tasavalta)
(December 1, 1939 - March 12, 1940)
German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik) (October
7, 1949 - October 3, 1990)
Political Committee of National Liberation (Greece) (December 24,
1947 - August 28, 1949)
People's Revolutionary Government of Grenada (March 13, 1979 -
October 25, 1983)
People's Republic of Hungary (Magyar Népköztársaság) (August 20, 1949
- October 23, 1989)
Hungarian Soviet Republic (Magyar Tanácsköztársaság) (March 21 -
August 6, 1919)
Democratic Kampuchea (April 4, 1976 - January 7, 1979)
People's Republic of Kampuchea (January 7, 1979 - October 23, 1991)
Mongolian People's Republic (November 24, 1924 - February 12, 1992)
People's Republic of Mozambique (República Popular de Moçambique)
(June 25, 1975 - December 1, 1990)
People's Republic of Poland (Polska Rzeczpospolita Ludowa) (June 28,
1945 - July 19, 1989)
People's Republic of Romania (Republica Populară Romînă) (December
30, 1947 - August 21, 1965)
Socialist Republic of Romania (Republica Socialistă România) (August
21, 1965 - December 22, 1989)
Somali Democratic Republic (Jamhuuriyadda Dimoqraadiga Soomaaliya)
(July 1, 1976 - January 26, 1991)
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (Soyuz Sovetskikh
Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik) (December 30, 1922 - December 26,
1991)
Tuvan People's Republic (Tuva Arat Respublik) (August 14, 1921 -
October 11, 1944)
Democratic Republic of Vietnam (Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa) (September
2, 1945 - July 2, 1976)
People's Democratic Republic of Yemen (Jumhūrīyah al-Yaman ad-
Dīmuqrāţīyah ash-Sha'bīyah)(November 30, 1967 - May 22, 1990)
Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (Socijalistička Federativna
Republika Jugoslavija, Социјалистичка Федеративна Република
Југославија, Socialistična federativna republika Jugoslavija)
(November 29, 1943 - April 27, 1992)
[edit] Non-Marxist-Leninist
These are countries whose constitutions make references to socialism,
but do not subscribe to Marxist-Leninist ideology. As such, they
represent a wide variety of different interpretations of the term
socialism.


Map showing countries whose constitutions contained some references to
socialism (under a non-Marxist definition) at some point in their
history.
[edit] Current
[edit] Constitutional references
Bangladesh - People's Republic of Bangladesh (since 16 December 1972)
(Gônoprojatontri Bangladesh) (see Constitution of Bangladesh)
Egypt - Arab Republic of Egypt (Gumhūriyyet Maṣr el-ʿArabiyyah)
(since 11 September 1971) (see Constitution of Egypt)
India - Republic of India (since 2 November 1976) (see Constitution
of India)
Libya - Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (Al-
Jamāhīriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah al-Lībiyyah aš-Šaʿbiyyah al-Ištirākiyyah al-
ʿUẓmā) (since 1 September 1969)
Portugal - Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa) (since 1976)
(see Constitution of Portugal)
Sri Lanka Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka (since 7
September 1978) (see Constitution of Sri Lanka)
Syria - Syrian Arab Republic (Al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-
Sūriyyah) (since 1973) (see Constitution of Syria)
Tanzania - United Republic of Tanzania (since 26 April 1964)
[edit] Informal
Nicaragua - Republic of Nicaragua (República de Nicaragua) (see
Sandinista)
Venezuela - Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (República Bolivariana
de Venezuela) (see Bolivarianism)
[edit] Former
People's Democratic Republic of Algeria (Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah
ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah ash-Sha’bīyah) (15 September 1963 - 23 February 1989)
Burkina Faso[citation needed]
Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma (1974–2008)[5]
Republic of Cape Verde (República de Cabo Verde)[citation needed]
Socialist Republic of Chile (República Socialista de Chile) (4 June -
13 September 1932)
Republic of Ghana[citation needed]
Republic of Iraq (Al-Jumhūrīyah al-ʿĪrāqiyah) (14 July 1958 - 16 July
1979)
Democratic Republic of Madagascar (Repoblika Demokratika Malagasy)
(21 December 1975 - 19 August 1992)
Republic of Mali (République du Mali) (6 December 1968 - 12 January
1992)
Republic of Nicaragua (República de Nicaragua)
Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe (República Democrática
de São Tomé e Príncipe)[citation needed]
Republic of Senegal (République du Sénégal)[citation needed]
Republic of Seychelles (Repiblik Sesel)[citation needed]
Democratic Republic of Sudan (Jumhūriyyat as-Sūdān ad-Dīmuqrāṭīyah)
(1969 - 1985)
Republic of Suriname (Republic Suriname)[citation needed]
Tunisian Republic (Al-Jumhūriyyah at-Tūnisiyyah)[citation needed]
Republic of Uganda[citation needed]
[edit] Former states
United Arab Republic (Al-Jumhūrīyah al-‘Arabīyah al-Muttaḥidah) now
Syrian Arab Republic and Egyptian Arab Republic
People's Republic of Zanzibar (Jamhuri ya Watu wa Zanzibar) now part
of Tanzania.
[edit] Ephemeral
These are short-lived political entities that emerged during wars or
revolutions (mostly in the aftermath of World War I) and declared
themselves to be socialist under some interpretation of the term, but
did not survive long enough to create a stable government or achieve
international recognition.
Alsace Soviet Republic (November 9 - November 22, 1918)
Azerbaijan People's Government (November 1945 - December 1946)
Bavarian Soviet Republic (Bayerische Räterepublik) (April 6 - May 3,
1919)
Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic (May - September 1919)
Bukharan People's Soviet Republic (October 8, 1920 - February 17,
1925)
Donetsk-Krivoy Rog Soviet Republic (February 12 - May 1918)
Asturian Socialist Republic (de facto) (October 5-18 1934)
Estonian Workers' Commune (Eesti Töörahva Kommuun/Эстляндская Трудовая
Коммуна) (November 29, 1918 - June 5, 1919)
Far Eastern Republic (Dalnevostochnaya Respublika) (April 6, 1920 -
November 15, 1922)
Finnish Socialist Workers' Republic (January 28 - April 29, 1918)
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (July 8 - September 21, 1920)
German Socialist Republic (Räterepublik) (November 9, 1918 - ?)
Hunan Soviet (1927)
Chinese Soviet Republic (Zhōnghuá Sūwéi'āi Gònghéguó) (November 7,
1931 - October 1934)
Khorazmian People's Soviet Republic (April 26, 1920 - October 20,
1923)
Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (Lietuvos-
Baltarusijos Tarybinė Socialistinė Respublika) (February 27 - August
25, 1919)
Republic of Mahabad (Komarî Mehabad) (January 22 - December 15, 1946)
Mughan Soviet Republic (March - June 1919)
Soviet Republic of Naissaar (December 1917 - February 26, 1918)
Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris) (March 18 - May 28, 1871) (first
socialist republic in history)
Persian Socialist Soviet Republic (June 9, 1920 - September 1921)
Republic of South Vietnam (Cộng Hòa Miền Nam Việt Nam) (April 30, 1975
- June 2, 1976)
Slovak Soviet Republic (Slovenská Republika Rád) (June 16 - July 7,
1919)
Turkestan Socialist Federative Republic (April 30, 1918 - October 27,
1924)
Democratic Republic of Yemen (May 21 - July 7, 1994)
[edit] See also
Communist state
List of current communist states
[edit] Notes
^ Constitution of the People's Republic of China: "Both the victory of
China's new-democratic revolution and the successes of its socialist
cause have been achieved by the Chinese people of all nationalities
under the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the guidance
of Marxism-Leninism and Mao Zedong Thought, and by upholding truth,
correcting errors and overcoming numerous difficulties and
hardships."
^ Constitution of the Republic of Cuba: WE, CUBAN CITIZENS, heirs and
continuators of the creative work and the traditions of combativity,
firmness, heroism and sacrifice fostered (...) by those who promoted,
joined and developed the first organizations of workers and peasants,
spread socialist ideas and founded the first Marxist and Marxist-
Leninist movements."
^ Constitution of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea:"The
Democratic People's Republic of Korea is a socialist fatherland of
Juche which embodies the idea of and guidance by the great leader
Comrade Kim Il Sung."
^ Constitution of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam: "The Communist
party of Vietnam (...), who adheres to Marxism-Leninism and Ho Chi
Minh's thought, is the force assuming leadership of the state and
society."
^ [http://www.thailawforum.com/database1/constmyanmar.html The
constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma. 1974.
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List_of_socialist_countries"
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Communist state
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

This article contains weasel words, vague phrasing that often
accompanies biased or unverifiable information. Such statements should
be clarified or removed. (March 2009)
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2009)

This article is about the form of government in which a state is
controlled by a communist party. For communism as an ideology, form of
society, or popular movement, see Communism.


A map showing the current Communist states. They are China, Cuba,
North Korea, Laos, and Vietnam.


Map of countries that declared themselves or were declared to be
socialist states under the Marxist-Leninist or Maoist definition at
some point in their history. The map uses present-day borders. Note
that not all of these countries were Marxist-Leninist or Maoist at the
same time.
History of
communist states
Communist states
PR China
Cuba
Laos
North Korea
Vietnam


Elected party, not communist
Cyprus
India (Kerala, West Bengal, Tripura)
Moldova
Nepal


Formerly communist
Afghanistan
Albania
Angola
Benin
Bulgaria
Cambodia
Congo
Czechoslovakia
East Germany
Ethiopia
Mongolia
Mozambique
Poland
Romania
Somalia
South Yemen
Soviet Union
Yugoslavia





Formerly quasi-communist Nicaragua

Communism
v • d • e

This article is part of the
Politics series
Forms of
government

List of forms of
government
Anarchy
Aristocracy
Authoritarianism
Autocracy
Communist state
Confederation
Corporatocracy
Consociational state
Demarchy
Democracy
Direct
Representative
Consensus
Despotism
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In political science, a Communist state is a state with a form of
government characterized by single-party rule of a Communist party and
a professed allegiance to a communist ideology as the guiding
principle of the state.
Communist states may have several legal political parties, but the
Communist party is usually granted a special or dominant role in
government, often by statute or under the constitution. Consequently,
the institutions of the state and of the Communist party become
intimately entwined, such as in the development of parallel
institutions.
While almost all claim lineage to Marxist thought, there are many
varieties of Communist states, with indigenous adaptions. For Marxist-
Leninists, the state and the Communist Party claim to act in
accordance with the wishes of the industrial working class; for
Maoists, the state and party claim to act in accordance to the
peasantry. Under Deng Xiaoping, the People's Republic of China
proclaimed a policy of "socialism with Chinese characteristics." In
most Communist states, governments assert that they represent the
democratic dictatorship of the proletariat.
Most Communist states adopted planned economies. However, there are
exceptions: The Soviet Union during the 1920s and Yugoslavia after
World War II allowed limited markets and a degree of worker self-
management, while China and Vietnam have introduced far-reaching
market reforms since the 1980s.
Contents
[hide]
1 Use of term
2 State institutions
3 Criticism
4 List of current Communist states
5 Notes
6 See also


Use of term
Communists[who?] dispute the validity of the term "communist state".
In classical Marxism, communism is the final phase of history at which
time the state would have "withered away"[1] and therefore "communist
state" is a contradiction in terms under premises of this theory.
Current states are either in the capitalist or socialist phase of
history – making the term "socialist state" preferable to Communists
[citation needed] – and the role of the communist party (i.e. the
vanguard party) is to pull a nation toward the communist phase of
history. The reason why most Western scholars[who?]prefer the term
"communist state" rather than "socialist state" to describe these
countries is because most socialists[who?] oppose the idea of a
vanguard party pulling a nation towards communism, and thus the term
"socialist state" is liable to cause confusion.
Heterodox Marxists[who?] have also opposed the usage of the term
"communist state". Since the 1930s, anti-Stalinist Marxists[who?] have
argued that the existing communist states did not actually adhere to
Marxism, but rather to a perversion of it that was heavily influenced
by Stalinism. This critique was based on a variety of arguments, but
nearly all anti-Stalinist communists[who?] argued that the Soviet
model did not represent the interests of the working class. As such,
Trotskyists[who?] referred to the Soviet Union as a "degenerated
workers' state"[cite this quote] and called its satellites "deformed
workers states".[cite this quote]
Not every country ruled by a communist party is viewed[by whom?] as a
communist state. As noted above, the term "communist state" has been
created and used by Western political scientists[who?] to refer to a
specific type of one-party state. Communist parties have won elections
and governed in the context of multi-party democracies, without
seeking to establish a one-party state. Examples include San Marino,
Republic of Nicaragua (in the 1980s),[citation needed] Republic of
Moldova (since 2001),[citation needed] Cyprus (presently),[citation
needed] and the Indian states of Kerala, West Bengal and Tripura.
[citation needed] These countries and states do not fall under the
definition of a communist state.
State institutions
Communist states share similar institutions, which are organized on
the premise that the communist party is a vanguard of the proletariat
and represents the long-term interests of the people. The doctrine of
democratic centralism, which was developed by Lenin as a set of
principles to be used in the internal affairs of the communist party,
is extended to society at large. According to democratic centralism,
all leaders must be elected by the people and all proposals must be
debated openly, but, once a decision has been reached, all people have
a duty to obey that decision and all debate should end. When used
within a political party, democratic centralism is meant to prevent
factionalism and splits. When applied to an entire state, democratic
centralism creates a one-party system.[2]
The constitutions of most communist states describe their political
system as a form of democracy.[3] Thus, they recognize the sovereignty
of the people as embodied in a series of representative parliamentary
institutions. Communist states do not have a separation of powers;
instead, they have one national legislative body (such as the Supreme
Soviet in the Soviet Union) which is considered the highest organ of
state power and which is legally superior to the executive and
judicial branches of government.[4] Such national legislative politics
in communist states often have a similar structure to the parliaments
that exist in liberal republics, with two significant differences:
first, the deputies elected to these national legislative bodies are
not expected to represent the interests of any particular
constituency, but the long-term interests of the people as a whole;
second, against Marx's advice, the legislative bodies of communist
states are not in permanent session. Rather, they convene once or
several times per year in sessions which usually last only a few days.
[5]
When the national legislative body is not in session – that is, most
of the time – its powers are transferred to a smaller council (often
called a "presidium") which combines legislative and executive power,
and, in some communist states,[which?] acts as a collective head of
state. The presidium is usually[weasel words] composed of important
communist party members and votes the resolutions of the communist
party into law.
Another feature of communist states is the existence of numerous state-
sponsored social organizations (trade unions, youth organizations,
women's organizations, associations of teachers, writers, journalists
and other professionals, consumer cooperatives, sports clubs, etc.)
which are integrated into the political system. In some communist
states,[which?] representatives of these organizations are guaranteed
a certain number of seats on the national legislative bodies. In all
communist states, the social organizations are expected to promote
social unity and cohesion, to serve as a link between the government
and society, and to provide a forum for recruitment of new communist
party members.[6]
Communist states[which?] maintain their legitimacy by claiming to
promote the long-term interests of the whole people, and communist
parties[which?] justify their monopoly on political power by claiming
to act in accordance with objective historical laws. Therefore,
political opposition and dissent is regarded[by whom?] as counter-
productive or even treasonous. Some communist states[which?] have more
than one political party, but all minor parties are required to follow
the leadership of the communist party. Criticism of proposed future
policies is usually[weasel words] tolerated, as long as it does not
turn into criticism of the political system itself. However, in
accordance with the principles of democratic centralism, communist
states usually[weasel words] do not tolerate criticism of policies
that have already been implemented in the past or are being
implemented in the present.[7] However, communist states are widely
seen as being de facto dictatorships by historians and sociologists,
since the elections they held tended to be heavily rigged.[8]
Criticism
Main article: Criticisms of Communist party rule
Communist states have been criticized for their one-party
dictatorships;[by whom?] totalitarian control of the economy and
society;[by whom?] repression of civil liberties;[9] economic focus on
heavy industry at the expense of consumer goods, sometimes resulting
in shortages of vital products or even famine;[10] militarism; and
propaganda to cover up the mistakes of the government.[11] Communism
itself does not necessarily advocate[weasel words] these actions, and
this is one of the reasons why many communists[who?] regard communist
states as bastardizations of communism.
List of current Communist states
Main article: List of current communist states
The following countries are one-party states in which the ruling party
declares allegiance to Marxism-Leninism and in which the institutions
of the party and of the state have become intertwined; hence they fall
under the definition of Communist states. They are listed here
together with the year of their founding and their respective ruling
parties.
Countries where institutions of the communist party and state are
intertwined:
People's Republic of China (since 1949); Communist Party of China
Republic of Cuba (Cuban Revolution in 1959, socialist state declared
in 1961); Communist Party of Cuba
Democratic People's Republic of Korea (since 1948); Korean Workers'
Party
Lao People's Democratic Republic (since 1975); Lao People's
Revolutionary Party
Socialist Republic of Vietnam (since 1976); Communist Party of
Vietnam (ruled the Democratic Republic of Vietnam since 1954)
While these countries share a similar system of government, they have
adopted very different economic policies over the past 15 years.
[when?] For instance, the People's Republic of China has introduced
sweeping market reforms. In addition, the various Communist states use
different terms to identify themselves and their social systems. Laos
has removed all references to Marxism-Leninism, communism and
socialism in the Constitution in 1991.[citation needed] North Korea
has removed references to Marxism-Leninism from its constitution and
officially describes itself as following the ideology of Juche.[12]
Vietnam is "in transition toward socialism in the light of Marxism-
Leninism" and Cuba is "a socialist state guided by ideas of Marx,
Engels and Lenin and in transition to a communist society".
As of December 2008, democratically elected communist parties head the
governments of three states. However, the states themselves allow for
multiple parties, and do not provide a constitutional role for the
communist party, so they are not communist states.
Cyprus, where the Progressive Party of Working People won the 2008
presidential election.
Moldova, where the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova has
governed the country since 2001.
Nepal, where the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) has governed the
country since 2008.
Notes
^ The oft-cited quote is borrowed from a variation of the English
translation of Anti-Dühring 1878 by Friedrich Engels, Part III:
Socialism - «The proletariat seizes political power and turns the
means of production in the first instance into state property. But, in
doing this, it abolishes itself as proletariat, abolishes all class
distinctions and class antagonisms, abolishes also the state as state.
Society thus far, based upon class antagonisms, had need of the state,
that is, of an organisation of the particular class, which was pro
tempore the exploiting class, for the maintenance of its external
conditions of production, and, therefore, especially, for the purpose
of forcibly keeping the exploited classes in the condition of
oppression corresponding with the given mode of production (slavery,
serfdom, wage-labour). The state was the official representative of
society as a whole; the gathering of it together into a visible
embodiment. But it was this only in so far as it was the state of that
class which itself represented, for the time being, society as a
whole: in ancient times, the state of slave-owning citizens; in the
Middle Ages, the feudal lords; in our own time, the bourgeoisie. When
at last it becomes the real representative of the whole of society, it
renders itself unnecessary. As soon as there is no longer any social
class to be held in subjection; as soon as class rule, and the
individual struggle for existence based upon our present anarchy in
production, with the collisions and excesses arising from these, are
removed, nothing more remains to be repressed, and a special
repressive force, a state, is no longer necessary. The first act by
virtue of which the state really constitutes itself the representative
of the whole of society — the taking possession of the means of
production in the name of society — this is, at the same time, its
last independent act as a state. State interference in social
relations becomes, in one domain after another, superfluous, and then
dies out of itself; the government of persons is replaced by the
administration of things, and by the conduct of processes of
production. The state is not "abolished". It dies out.»
^ Furtak, Robert K. "The political systems of the socialist states",
St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, pp. 8-9.
^ Furtak, Robert K. "The political systems of the socialist states",
St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 12.
^ Furtak, Robert K. "The political systems of the socialist states",
St. Martin's Press, New York, 1987, p. 13.
^ Furtak, Robert K. "The political systems of the socialist states",
St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 14.
^ Furtak, Robert K. "The political systems of the socialist states",
St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 16-17.
^ Furtak, Robert K. "The political systems of the socialist states",
St. Martin's Press, New York, 1986, p. 18-19.
^ United Nations Human Rights Website - Treaty Bodies Database -
Document - State Party Report - Germany
^ Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly, Resolution 1481 (2006)
Need for international condemnation of crimes of totalitarian
communist regimes
^ The Economics of Soviet Agriculture by Leonard E. Hubbard, p.
117-18
^ Kenez, Peter (1985). The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet
Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917-1929. Cambridge University Press.
ISBN 0521313988.
^ Kim Jong-Il (31 March 1982). "On the Juche Idea".
http://www1.korea-np.co.jp/pk/062nd_issue/98092410.htm#4.%20THE%20GUIDING%20PRINCIPLES%20OF%20THE%20JUCHE%20IDEA.
Retrieved on 2007-01-03.
See also
List of socialist countries, which includes a list of current and
former communist states.
List of current communist states
List of communist parties
Criticisms of Communist party rule
[show] Links to related articles

[show] v • d • ePresent-day communist states

Single-party state People's Republic of China Cuba North
Korea Laos Vietnam

[show] v • d • eAuthoritarian forms of government

Autocratic Absolute monarchy · Despotism · Dictatorship · Enlightened
absolutism · Tyranny

Totalitarian Fascism · Stalinism · Theocracy · Totalitarian democracy

Other Illiberal democracy · Military dictatorship · Military junta ·
Oligarchy · Single-party state




Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_state"


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Members of NATO
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from List of members of NATO)
Jump to: navigation, search

NATO members highlighted in green
Timeline of countries becoming NATO members. Dark blue marks countries
that were already NATO members at the given time. Light blue marks new
members.The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is a military
alliance that consists of 28 member states from North America and
Europe. It was established at the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty
on 4 April 1949.[1] Article Five of the treaty states that if an armed
attack occurs against one of the member states, it should be
considered an attack against all members, and other members shall
assist the attacked member, with armed forces if necessary.[2]

Of the 28 members of NATO, two are North American countries (Canada
and the US) and 26 are European countries.All members have militaries,
although Iceland does not have a normal army (It does, however, have a
military coast guard and a small unit of soldiers for peacekeeping
operations). Three of NATO's members have nuclear weapons: the United
Kingdom, France, and the United States.


[edit] Member states
Date Country Enlargement Notes
April 4, 1949 Belgium Founders
Canada
Denmark
France France withdrew from the integrated military command in 1966
to pursue an independent defence system but returned to full
membership on April 4, 2009.
Iceland Iceland, the sole member that does not have its own standing
army, joined on the condition that it would not be expected to
establish one. However, its strategic geographic position in the
Atlantic made it an invaluable member. It has a Coast Guard and has
recently provided troops trained in Norway for NATO peacekeeping.
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Norway
Portugal
United Kingdom
United States
18 February 1952 Greece First Greece withdrew its forces from NATO’s
military command structure from 1974 to 1980 as a result of Greco-
Turkish tensions following the 1974 Turkish invasion of Cyprus.
Turkey
9 May 1955 Germany Second Joined as West Germany; Saarland reunited
with it in 1957 and the territories of Berlin and the former German
Democratic Republic reunited with it on 3 October 1990. The GDR was a
member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1956-1990.
30 May 1982 Spain Third
12 March 1999 Czech Republic Fourth Member of the rival Warsaw Pact
1955-1991 as part of Czechoslovakia.
Hungary Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991.
Poland Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991.
29 March 2004 Bulgaria Fifth Member of the rival Warsaw Pact
1955-1991.
Estonia Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991 as part of the
Soviet Union.
Latvia Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991 as part of the
Soviet Union.
Lithuania Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991 as part of the
Soviet Union.
Romania Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991.
Slovakia Member of the rival Warsaw Pact 1955-1991 as part of
Czechoslovakia.
Slovenia Previously part of Yugoslavia 1945-1991 (Non-aligned)
1 April 2009 Albania Sixth Member of the rival Warsaw Pact
1955-1968.
Croatia Previously part of Yugoslavia 1945-1991 (Non-aligned)


[edit] References


Countries of the First World
List of Countries of the First World
The term First World originally refers to the capitalist,
industrialized countries, within the Western European and United
States' sphere of influence, (e.g. member states of the NATO).
Whoever uses the term today in a variety of meanings, mostly tries to
describe the top end of the evolution of countries. Nations with the
most advanced economy, highest standard of living, the most advanced
technology, the greates influence in the world.
The term could also mean: industrialized nations, developed countries,
rich countries or the civilized world,
in contrast to the poor, under-developed, un-civilized, exploited
nations of the so called Third World.
also included other industrialized capitalist countries such as Japan
and some of the former British


First World - Industrialized Countries, within the Western European
and United States' Sphere of Influence
NATO Member States during the Cold War

Belgium Canada Denmark
France Germany (West) Greece
Iceland Italy Luxembourg
Netherlands Norway Portugal
Spain (since 1982) Turkey United Kingdom
USA

US Aligned States
Israel Japan Korea (South)

Former British Colonies
Australia New Zealand

Neutral and more or less industrialized capitalist countries
Austria Ireland Sweden
Switzerland
mrliu918
2009-06-05 08:13:08 UTC
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List of Russian embassy and consulate worldwide

Last edited: 18/11/2004 18:15
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in New York, 9
East 91 Street, New York, NY, 10128, USA
Phone: +1 212 348-0926, 939-8913, 348-0955
Telex: 2326734839
Fax: +1 212 831-9162
Russian Passport Service
Last edited: 22/11/2004 14:28
Address: Embassy of the Russian Federation, 2650 Wisconsin Ave., NW,
Washington DC, 20007, USA
Phone: +1 202 298-5700, 298-5701, 298-5704
Telex: (234) 248400 WSHP UR
Fax: +1 212 298-5735
E-mail: ***@mindspring.com

Consular department
Phone: +1 202 939-8907, 939-8913, 939-8918
Telex: (232) 248708 COEM UR
Fax: +1 202 939-8919
Russian Passport Service
Last edited: 24/11/2004 12:00
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation
2790 Green Street, San Francisco, CA 94123
Phone: +1 415 928-6878
Telex: 336184945
Fax: +1 415 929-0306
Russian Passport Service
Last edited: 24/11/2004 12:00
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Seattle, 2323
Westin Building, 2001 6th Avenue, Seattle, WA., 98121, USA
Phone: +1 206 728-1910, 861-4900
Telex: 2326505700941
Fax: +1 206 728-1871
Russian Passport Service
Last edited: 24/11/2004 12:00
Address: Consular Division, Embassy of the Russian Federation, 2641,
TUNLAW RD., N.W., WASHINGTOND.C., 20007, USA
Phone: +1 202 939-8907, 939-8913, 939-8918
Telex: (232) 248708 COEM UR
Fax: +1 202 939-8919
Russian Passport Service
Last edited: 12/03/2008 17:41
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Houston,
1333 West Loop South, Ste.1300, Houston, TX 77027
Phone: (713) 337-3300 ext. 309
Telex:
Fax: (713) 337-3305
Russian Passport Service
Last edited: 24/03/2004 18:26
Address:
Phone: (+97142) 23-12-72
Telex:
Fax: (+97142) 23-15-85
E-mail:

Last edited: 24/03/2004 18:25
Address: United Arab Emirates, Abu-Dabi, Shark-9, Khalifa str., No.
65,67, P.O. Box No. 8211
Phone: (+9712) 672-17-97
Telex: (893) 24464 ADSOVE EM
Fax: (+9712) 672-87-31
E-mail: ***@hotmail.com

Consular department
Phone: (+9712) 672-35-16
Telex: 89324464
Fax: (+9712) 672-8713
E-mail: ***@emirates.net.ae

Last edited: 31/03/2004 20:28
Address:
Embassy of the Russian Federation, Consular Division, 52 Range Road,
Ottawa, Ontario, K 1 N 8 J 5, Canada

Phone:
+1 613 236-7220, 236-6215, 236-0920

Telex: (21) 0533396 CONSUL OTT
Fax: +1 613 238-6158
E-mail: ***@rogers.com

Last edited: 26/04/2004 19:53
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Toronto, 175
Bloor Street East, South Tower, Suite 801,Toronto,Ontario, M4W 3R8
Phone: +1 416 962-9911
Telex:
Fax: +1 416 962-6611
E-mail: ***@bellnet.ca

Last edited: 07/07/2004 20:45
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Montreal,
3685, Avenue de Musee, Montreal, Quebec, H 3 G 2 E 1, Canada
Phone: +1 514 843-5901, 842-5343
Telex: (26) 05560469 MTL
Fax: +1 514 842-2012
E-mail: ***@bellnet.ca

Last edited: 31/05/2004 21:00
Address: Jose Vasconcelos 204, Colonia Hipodromo Condesa, Delegacion
Cuauhtemoc, Mexico, D.F., C.P. 06140
Phone: (+5255) 5273-1305, 5516-0870, 516-7633 (ambassador)
Telex: (22) 1776574 URSS ME
Fax: (+5255) 5273-1545
E-mail: ***@hotmail.com

Consular department
Phone: (+5255) 5273-1605, 5272-0023
Telex: (22) 1772516
Fax: (+5255) 5273-1545

Last edited: 29/03/2006 14:33
Address: 263 Jalan Ampang, 50450 Kuala Lumpur
Phone: +603 4256-0009, 4256-7252
Telex: (84) 26073 USSRKL MA
Fax: +603 4257-6091
E-mail: ***@tm.net.my, ***@yandex.ru

Consular department
Phone: +603 4256-3949
Telex: 8426073
Fax: +603 4252-9139
E-mail: ***@tm.net.my

Last edited: 05/05/2004 21:33
Address: 51, Nassim Road, Singapore 258439
Phone: +65 6235-1832, 6235-1834
Telex: (87) 23404 SUPOSOL RS
Fax: +65 6733-4780
E-mail: ***@pacific.net.sg

Consular department
Phone: +65 6737-0048, 6235-1834
Telex: (87) 23071
Fax: +65 6733-4780

Last edited: 02/08/2004 11:47
Address: 78 Sap Road, Bangkok, 10500, Thailand
Phone: +66 2 234-9824, 268-1169
Telex: (86) 21947 RUSSEMB TH
Fax: +66 2 237-8488
E-mail: ***@rambler.ru

Consular department
Phone: +66 2 234-2012
Telex: (86) 21947
Fax: +66 2 268-1166
E-mail: ***@cscoms.com

Last edited: 24/03/2004 18:33
Address: 191, La Thanh street, Hanoi, Vietnam
Phone: +84 4 833-6991, 833-6992
Telex:
Fax: +84 4 833-6995
E-mail: moscow-***@yandex.ru
***@hn.vnn.vn

Consular department
Phone: +84 4 833-65-75
Telex: 805411441
Fax: 733-3922,
+84 4 833-69-96
E-mail: ***@hn.vnn.vn

Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:19
Address: 40, Ba Huyen Thanh Quan street, Hochiminh city, Vietnam
Phone: +84 8 930-39-36
Telex: (805) 811238 GCONSU HCM
Fax: +84 8 930-39-37
E-mail: ***@fmail.vnn.vn

Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:18
Address: Aden, Yemen Republic, Abyan Beach Road P.O.Box 6001
Phone: +9672 232-792
Telex:
Fax: +9672 232-792
E-mail: ***@y.net.ye

Last edited: 24/03/2004 18:15
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Istanbul,
Istiklal Cad, 219-225a, 34430, Beyoglu, Istanbul, Turkey
Phone: +90 212 292-5101, 292-5102, 292-51-03
Telex: (607) 25556
Fax: +90 212 249-0507
E-mail: ***@turk.net

Last edited: 23/03/2004 18:32
Address: Saudi Arabia, P.O.Box 94308 Riyadh 11693 Russian Embassy, Al-
Wasiti str., Rahmania, bld. 13
Phone: +966 1 481-1875, 481-1801
Telex: (495) 407890 SUEMBS SJ
Fax: +966 1 481-1890
E-mail: ***@arab.net.sa

Consular department
Phone: +966 1 481-1844
Telex: (495) 407890
Fax: +966 1 481-1890

Last edited: 23/03/2004 18:28
Address: Embassy of the Russian Federation in the Philippines, 1245
Acacia Road, Dasmarinas Village, Makati, Metro Manila, Philippines
Phone: +632 893-0190, 817-5406 (ambassador)
Telex: (75) 63709 SOVPSL PN
Fax: +632 810-9614
E-mail: ***@i-manila.com.ph

Consular department
Phone: +632 810-9581
Telex: (75) 63709
Fax: +632 810-9581

Last edited: 23/03/2004 18:26
Address: Embassy of the Russian Federation, Diplomatic Enclave,
Ramna-4, Islamabad, Pakistan
Phone: (+9251) 260-08-11, 260-08-12
Telex: (82) 54241 USSRE PK
Fax: (+9251) 260-08-14
E-mail: ***@isb.comsats.net.pk

Consular department
Phone: (+9251) 227-86-69
Telex: 8254241
Fax: (+9251) 260-08-13
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Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:21
Address: Enkhtayvany gudamzh, A-6, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia;
Mail address: C.P.O. Box 661, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Phone: +976 11 327-851 (reception-room),
327-506 (on-duty)
Telex: (800) 251 TLX UB
Fax: +976 11 327-018
E-mail: ***@mongol.net

Consular department
Phone: +976 11 326-183, 9911-5603
Telex: 800251
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Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:18
Address: Thaphalanxay quarter, km 4, Thadeua str., Vientiane, B.P.
490, Laos
Phone: +856 21 312-219, 312-222
Telex: (804) 4323 AMB SOV LS
Fax: +856 21 312-210
E-mail: ***@laotel.com

Consular department
Phone: +856 21 312-218
Telex: 8044323
Fax: +856 21 312-210
E-mail: ***@mail.ru

Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:20
Address: Kuwait, Al-Kuwait, Daya Diplomatic Area, Block 17, P.O. Box
1765-SAFAT 13018
Phone: (+965) 256-0427, 256-0428
Telex: (496) 022945 POSOL KT
Fax: (+965) 252-4969
E-mail: ***@mail.ru

Consular department
Phone: (+965) 256-0159, 256-0428
Telex: POSOLKT (496) 22945 KT
Fax: 252-4969

Last edited: 22/03/2004 15:28
Address: Korea Exchange Bank Bld., 89-1, 4-KA, Chungang-Dong, Chung-
Ku, Pusan, Republic of Korea
Phone: +82 51 441-9904, 441-9905
Telex: (801) 52604 RUSCONS
Fax: +82 51 464-4404
E-mail: ***@bora.dacom.co.kr,
***@kornet.net

Last edited: 02/08/2004 11:51
Address: 34-16 Chong-dong, Chung-gu, Seoul, 100-120, Republic of
Korea
Phone: +82 2 318-2116, 318-2117, 318-2118

Telex:
Fax: +82 2 754-0417

E-mail: ***@uriel.net

Consular department
Phone: +82 2 318-2134
Telex:
Fax: +82 2 752-1407
E-mail: ***@kornet.net

Last edited: 22/03/2004 15:29
Address: DPRK, Phyonyang, Chungkuyok, Sinyang-dong, Tesagwan of
Russian
Phone: +8502 381-3101
Telex: (899) 5344 EMSU KP
Fax: +8502 381-3427
E-mail: ***@yahoo.com

Consular department
Phone: +8502 381-3101
Telex: 89935002
Fax: +8502 381-3427

Last edited: 31/05/2004 21:08
Address: Embassy of the Russian Federation in Japan, 1-1, Azabudai; 2-
chome, Minato-ku, Tokyo, Japan, 106-0041
Phone: +81 3 3583-4224, 3583-5982, 3583-4297
Telex: (72) 24231 SOVPOSOL J
Fax: +81 3 3505-0593
E-mail: ***@ma.kcom.ne.jp

Consular department
Phone: +81 33 3583-4445, 3586-0408
Telex: (72) 24231
Fax: +81 3 3586-0407

Last edited: 12/03/2004 16:19
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation, Toyonaka-shi
Nishi Midorigaoka 1-2-2, Osaka-fu, Japan, 560-0005
Phone: (+81 6) 848-3452, 848-3451
Telex: (72) 65908 SOVCON J
Fax: (+81 6) 848-3453
E-mail: ***@par.odn.ne.jp

Last edited: 22/03/2004 15:02
Address: Iraq, Baghdad, Al-Moutanabbi, 605/5/4
Phone: +964 1 543-44-62
Telex: (491) 212409 LYRA IK
Fax: +964 1 543-44-62
E-mail: ***@mail.ru

Consular department
Phone: +964 1 541-8913
Telex: (491) 212409 LYRA IK
Fax:
E-mail:
***@uruklink.net

Last edited: 30/07/2004 11:16
Address: 1, Rehov Ben-Ehuda, Tel-Aviv, 63801, Israel
Phone: +972 3 510-1020, 510-7088
Telex: (606) 371562 CONCU IL
Fax: +972 3 510-1093
E-mail: ***@mail.netvision.net.il

Last edited: 29/02/2008 11:11
Address: 120 Hayarkon Str., 63573 Tel Aviv, Israel
Phone: +9723 529-0691, 522-6744
Telex: 321200 TPR IL
Fax: +9723 522-6713
E-mail: ***@mail.netvision.net.il

Consular department
Phone: +9723 516-4090, 516-1525
Telex: (606) 371562 CONCU IL
Fax: +9723 510-1093
E-mail: ***@mail.netvision.net.il

Last edited: 22/03/2004 14:51
Address:
Embassy of the Russian Federation, J1. H.R. Rasuna Said Kav. X-7, 1-2,
Kuningan, Jakarta, Indonesia

Phone: +62 21 522-2912, 522-2914, 720-2722 (embassy campus)
Telex: (73) 46056 (through Trade Delegation)
Fax: +62 21 522-2916
E-mail: ***@dnet.net.id

Consular department
Phone: +62 21 522-29-12, 522-29-14

Telex: 7369180
Fax: +62 21 522-2915

Last edited: 22/03/2004 14:47
Address: Embassy of the Russian Federation, Shantipath, Chanakyapuri.
New Delhi, 110021, India
Phone: +9111 2611-0640, 2611-0641, 2611-0642, 2611-0644, 2611-0565,
2687-3800, 2687-3802
Telex: (31) 72116 RUSS IN, (31) 72160 RUSS IN
Fax: +9111 2687-6823, 2410-3961
E-mail: ***@del2.vsnl.net.in (embassy), ***@del2.vsnl.net.in
(consular department), ***@ndb.vsnl.net.in (trade department),
***@del2.vsnl.net.in (trade department)

Consular department
Phone: +91 11 2611-0560, 2687-3800
Telex: 81318016
Fax: +91 11 2687-6823
E-mail: ***@del2.vsnl.net.in

Last edited: 22/03/2004 14:50
Address: Consulate General of the Russian Federation in Mumbai, 42,
Jagmohandas Marg (Nepean Sea Road) Mumbai, 400006, India
Phone: +91 22 2363-3627, 2363-3628
Telex: (81) 1175939 RUSS IN
Fax: +91 22 2363-0403
E-mail: ***@mtnl.net.in

Last edited: 22/03/2004 14:30
Address: 100600, Beijing, Dongzhimennei Beizhong str., 4
Phone: +8610 6532-2051, 6532-1381
Telex: (85) 22247 SOVEN CN
Fax: +8610 6532-4851
E-mail: ***@russia.org.cn

Consular department
Phone: +8610 6532-1267, 6532-1991
Telex: (85) 22247 SOVEN CN
Fax: +8610 6532-4853

Last edited: 29/04/2004 17:23
Address: 2106, 21/Fl, Sun Hung Kai Centre, 30 Harbour Road, Wanchai,
Hong Kong
Phone: +852 2877-7188, 2877-5024
Telex:
Fax: +852 2877-7166
E-mail: ***@hknet.com

Last edited: 10/03/2008 16:55
Address: 31, Nan Shisanvailu, Shenyang, 110003, China
Phone: (+8624) 2322-39-27
Telex: (85) 804154
Fax: (+8624) 2322-39-07

E-mail: ***@mail.sy.ln.cn, ***@pub.sy.lnpta.net.cn

Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:18
Address: 200080, Shanghai, Huangpu Road, 20
Phone: (+8621) 6324-8383, 6324-2682
Telex: (85) 337020
Fax: (+8621) 6306-9982
E-mail: ***@online.sh.cn

Last edited: 22/03/2004 14:28
Address: Embassy of the Russian Federation, 213, Blvd. Sothearos,
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Phone: +855 23 210-931
Telex:
Fax: +855 23 216-776
E-mail: ***@online.com.kh

Consular department
Phone: +855 23 217-694
Telex:
Fax:
E-mail: ***@online.com.kh

Last edited: 19/03/2004 19:28
Address: Dar-ul-Aman Road, Ayub Khan Mena, Kabul, Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan
Phone: +93 20 250-01-77;
+93 20 250-02-55;
+93 70 298-277
Telex:
Fax: +873 762-743-497 tone 334-49-59;
+93 20 250-00-44
E-mail: ***@neda.af

Consular department
Phone: +93 20 250-00-10

Last edited: 22/02/2008 15:33
Address: 78 Canberra Avenue, Griffith, ACT 2603
Phone: +61 2 6295-9033
Telex: (71) 61365 RUSPOSL AA
Fax: +61 2 6295-1847
E-mail: ***@rambler.ru

Consular department
Phone: +61 2 295-9474
Telex: (71) 61365
Fax: (02) 6295-1001
E-mail:
***@lightningpl.net.au

Last edited: 12/07/2004 19:57
Address: 7-9 Fullerton Street, Woollahra, NSW 2025
Phone: +61 2 9326-1702, 9326-1866
Telex: (71) 73606 RUSCON AA
Fax: +61 2 9327-5065
E-mail: ***@westnet.com.au

Last edited: 31/05/2004 20:06
Address: 57 Messines Road, Karori, Wellington
Phone: +64 4 476-6113
Telex:
Fax: +64 4 476-3843
E-mail: ***@xtra.co.nz

Consular department
Phone: +64 4 476-6742
Telex:
Fax: +64 4 476-3843
E-mail: ***@xtra.co.nz

Last edited: 29/04/2004 18:24
Address: 40-50, Boulevard Lannes, 75116 Paris
Phone: +33 1 4504-0550, 4504-4030
Telex: (42) 611761 AMCONGE F
Fax: +33 1 4504-1765
E-mail: ***@wanadoo.fr

Consular department
Phone: +33 1 4504-0501
Telex: (42) 642830
Fax: +33 1 4504-4409
E-mail: ***@wanadoo.fr

Last edited: 26/03/2004 19:23
Address: 6, place Sebastien Brant, 67000 Strasbourg
Phone: +33 3 8836-7315
Telex: 891006 COGERUS
Fax: +33 3 8835-3481
E-mail: ***@wanadoo.fr

Last edited: 26/03/2004 19:36
Address:
Botschaft der Russischen Foederation in der Bundesrepublik
Deutschland, Unter den Linden, 63-65, 10117 Berlin

Phone: +49 30 229-11-10,
+49 30 229-11-29
Telex: (41) 302534 BERLIN D
Fax: +49 30 229-9397
E-mail: ***@russische-botschaft.de

Consular department
Phone: (+49-30) 22-65-11-83 (Russian language), 22-65-11-84 (German
language)
Telex: (41) 186353, (41) 302534
Fax: +49 30 22-65-19-99
E-mail: ***@russische-botschaft.de

Last edited: 26/03/2004 19:37
Address:
Generalkonsulat der Russischen Foederation in Hamburg,
Am Freenteich, 20, 22085 Hamburg

Phone: +49 40 229-52-01
+49 40 229-53-01
Telex: (41) 211927 UDSSR D
Fax: +49 40 229-7727
E-mail:
***@generalkonsulat-rus-hamburg.de

Last edited: 19/03/2004 20:36
Address: Cairo, Dokki, Giza str., 95, Egypt
Phone: +202 748-9353, 748-9354, 748-9355, 748-9356
Telex: (91) 23311 SU EMB UN
Fax: +202 760-9074
E-mail: ***@tedata.net.eg

Consular department
Phone: +202 761-4511
Telex: 9123312
Fax: 761-4512
E-mail: ***@tedata.net.eg

Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:22
Address: Saba-Pacha, Tag-Roussa str. 9, Alexandria, Egypt
Phone: +20 3 583-3534
Telex: 9155521
Fax: +20 3 583-2811
E-mail: ***@access.com.eg

Last edited: 30/09/2003 00:22
Address: Embajada de la Federacion de Rusia, 5-a Avenida, N 6402,
entre 62 y 66, Miramar, La Habana, Cuba
Phone: (+537) 204-10-85, 204-26-86, 204-26-28, 204-10-80
Telex: (28) 511281 EMURSS CU
Fax: (+537) 204-10-38
E-mail: ***@newmail.ru

Consular department
Phone: (+537) 204-10-74, 204-10-86, 204-17-49
Telex: 28511281
Fax: 204-10-38

Embassy of Russia in UK:

Address: 6/7 Kensington Palace Gardens, London, W 8 4QP, UK
Phone: +44 207 229-64-12, 229-72-81, 229-36-28, 792-31-42, 229-36-28
Telex: (51) 261420 SOCNCL G
Fax: +44 207 229-58-04, 727-86-25
E-mail: ***@rusemblon.org

Consular department:
Address: 5 Kensington Palace Gardens, London W8 4QS, UK
Phone: +44 207 229-80-27, 792-8473
Telex: 51261420
Fax: +44 207 229-32-15
E-mail: ***@rusemblon.org
mrliu918
2009-06-06 06:46:42 UTC
Permalink
Travel warning: 1990 incident and the outcome of Olympic Games in
subsequent years.

Travel warning for participants of 1990 incident


Phone calls in Asia revealed Russian discontent that USSR did not got
any gold medal in the 1992 Olympic Boxing because of the 1990
incident; while USA did not have as many as gold medals it supposed
to receive for the following ten years as a result of the 1990
incident.
However, there are not any reason to validate their claim that the
1990 incident in any way affect the outcome of Olympic Game in
subsequent years. The fananticism of callers and their obsession in
Cold War politics are the justification for me to issue travel
warning
for all the participants of 1990 incident.


Information from internet could be unreliable due to hacking with
malicious intent and corruption in phone company. Readers and
participants of 1990 incident are encouraged to verify content
on internet from multiple and creditable sources through
secure communication channels.

Address:

United States Embassy of Beijing, China
Ambassador Clark T. Randt, Jr.
Xiu Shui Bei Jie 3, 100600
Phone (86-10) 6532-3831

Public Affairs
Public Affairs Officer Donald Bishop
Fax (86-10) 6532-2039


Address:
The US Consulate General in Shenyang
No.52, 14 Wei Road, Heping District, Shenyang, Liaoning, P.R.C 110003
Tel: 86-24-2322-1198 Fax: 86-24-2322-2374
Email: ***@state.gov


Address:

The US Consulate General in Chengdu
No. 4 Lingshiguan Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, PRC 610041
Tel: (28) 8558-3992, 8558-9642 Fax: (28) 8558-3520
Email:
***@state.gov


Address:
American Embassy Cairo - 8 Kamal El Din Salah St., Garden City, Cairo,
Egypt.
Tel. [20] [2] 797-3300 Fax. [20] [2] 797-3200


Address:
U.S. Embassy

Shantipath, Chanakyapuri
New Delhi - 110021

Tel: 011-2419-8000
email: ***@state.gov
http://newdelhi.usembassy.gov/

Address:

American Consulate General, Osaka-Kobe, Japan.

Address: 11-5 Nishitenma 2-chome, Kita-ku, Osaka, 530-8543, Japan.

Address:

United States Embassy (South Africa)
PO Box 9536, Pretoria 0001, 877 Pretorius St, Pretoria,
tel: (27-12) 342-1048, fax: (27-12) 342-2244
***@pd.state.gov

Address:
The US Consulate General in Shanghai
1469 Huai Hai Zhong Lu, Shanghai, P.R.C. 200031
Tel. (86-21) 6433 - 6880 Fax. (86-21)6433-4122

Address:

United States Consulate Guangzhou
1 Shamian South Street
Guangzhou, 510133 PRC

Address :

United States
Consulate General
Guadalajara - M��ico

Progreso 175, Col. Americana Guadalajara, Jalisco ZP C. 44100
Phone: (01-33) 3825-2700; Fax: (01-33) 3826-6549
Emergency phone (01-33) 3826-5553

Address:

Addresses of the U.S. Missions in France

American Embassy
2 avenue Gabriel
75008 Paris, France
Switchboard (33) 1 43 12 22 22
Fax (33) 1 42 66 97 83

Embassy press office by telephone at 33 1 43 12 27 01.

Webmaster at
***@amb-usa.fr.

Address:

U.S. Embassy in Sana'a, Yemen
Address: Sa'awan Street, P.O. Box 22347
Telephone: (967) 1 303-155 to 159
Fax: (967) 1 303160/1/2/4/5
Emergency only: (967) 1 303166

Address:

American Embassy Tokyo

1-10-5 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 107-8420 JAPAN
U.S. mail address: APO AP 96337-5004 USA
(03) 3224-5000: general switchboard
(03) 5354-4033: visa information
FAX: (03) 3505-1862

Address:
Embassy of the United States Seoul
32 Sejongno, Jongno-gu
Seoul 110-710
Republic of Korea

Address:
U.S. Embassy Hanoi Vietnam
7 Lang Ha Street, Ba Dinh Dist,
Hanoi, Vietnam

Tel:
84-4-7221500

Fax:
7221510

Address:
U.S. Consulate General
Hong Kong and Macau

26 Garden Road, Hong Kong
Tel: (852) 2523-9011 Fax: (852) 2845-1598


Address:
AMERICAN EMBASSY ISLAMABAD
Diplomatic Enclave, Ramna 5
Islamabad, Pakistan
Tel: (92) 51-2080-0000
Fax: (92) 51-2276427

Address:

EMBASSY OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
JAKARTA, INDONESIA
Consular Section
Jl. Merdeka Selatan No. 5, Jakarta Pusat
Tel. (62-21) 3435-9000, Fax. (62-021) 385-7189
Consul General: Mary Grandfield

Address:

376 Jalan Tun Razak,

Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Tel: 603-2168-5000.

Fax: 603-2148-5801.

Office Timings:

Embassy Hours of Operation:

Monday - Friday 7:45 a.m. - 4:30 p.m. T

Address:
Consulate General of the United States
MLC Centre, Level 59
19-29 Martin Place
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia

Address:
Avenida Tapachula # 96, Colonia Hip�Kromo
Tijuana, Baja California, M��ico
Phone: (664) 622-7400


Address:

Embassy of the United States

Avenida La Encalada cdra. 17 s/n
Surco, Lima 33, PERU
Tel: (51-1)434-3000
Fax: (51-1)618-2397

Address:

U.S. Embassy, London
24 Grosvenor Square
London, W1A 1AE
United Kingdom

Switchboard: [44] (0)20 7499-9000

Address:

Consular Section
U.S. Embassy
1201 Roxas Boulevard
Manila, Philippines 1000

American Citizens Service
Tel. No. : (632) 523-1001 extension 2555, 2246
Fax : (632) 522-3242

Address :
U.S. Embassy Warsaw

Aleje Ujazdowskie 29/31

00-540 Warsaw Poland

Tel.: +48-22/504-2000

Address :

Address: Embassy of the United States of America
P.O. Box 1190,
Wellington,
New Zealand


Street Address: 29 Fitzherbert Terrace,
Thorndon,
Wellington,
New Zealand


Phone: +644 462 6000


Fax: +644 499 0490


Address:
U.S. Embassy
P.O. Box 4009
Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
Tel: (971)(02) 414-2200
Fax: (971)(2) 414-2241

Email: ***@state.gov

Address:

American Embassy P.O. Box 354, Amman 11118 Jordan.
Tel: 962-6-590-6000,
Fax: 962-6-592-0121.

For Visa and Travel Inquiries Please Contact:
***@state.gov

For Public Affairs Please Contact:
***@usembassy-amman.org.jo

For Business Inquiries Please Contact:
***@usembassy-amman.org.jo


Address:

AMERICAN EMBASSY ANKARA
110 Ataturk Blvd.
Kavaklidere, 06100 Ankara - TURKEY
Phone: (90-312) 455-5555
Fax: (90-312) 467-0019
e-mail:
***@yahoo.com

Address: The U.S. embassy in Thailand

120/22 Wireless Road, Bangkok

(tel. 66-2-205-4000)

Address:

U.S. Embassy in Moscow
Bolshoy Deviatinsky Pereulok No. 8
Moscow 121099, Russian Federation - PSC-77, APO AE 09721
Tel: +7 (095) 728-5000, fax: 728-5090
(Moscow is 8 hours ahead of Washington)
Consular e-mail (for questions regarding visas and other consular
services):
***@state.gov
Webmaster e-mail:
***@state.gov
For more information see Sections and Key Officers

Address:

U.S. Consular Services
The Consular Section of the U.S. Embassy is located at 490 Sussex
Drive in Ottawa, Ontario. The Embassy and Consular Section's mailing
address is
P.O. Box 866, Station B
Ottawa, Ontario K1P 5T1

Phone: 613.238.5335
Fax: 613.688.3082

Address:

American Embassy
P.O. Box 94309
Riyadh 11693
Saudi Arabia

Telephone 9661-4883800
Fax 9661-4887360

EMail:
***@State.gov

Address:

The United States Embassy
Tudor Arghezi, 7-9
(40-21) 210-4042
Fax: (40-21) 210-0395

Office Timings:

Address:

American Embassy
27 Napier Road
Singapore 258508
Main Tel. No: (65) 6476-9100
Main Fax No: (65) 6476-9340

American Citizen Services
Fax: (65) 6476-9232
Email: ***@state.gov


Address:
Embassy of the United States Berlin
Neust�ktische Kirchstr. 4-5
10117 Berlin
Federal Republic of Germany
Telephone: (030) 8305-0

Address:

Consular Section; U.S. Embassy
Attn: ACS Unit
Ul. Kapitan Andreev 1
Sofia 1421, Bulgaria

IMMIGRANT VISA UNIT (for permanent residence in the United States):

Telephone: +359 (2) 963-1250 (2:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. only)
Fax: +359 (2) 963-3436
E-mail: ***@state.gov
mrliu918
2009-06-06 06:57:47 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipdia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_widow_spider
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redback_spider
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_hesperus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_variolus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katipo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_tredecimguttatus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_black_widow


Redback spider
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Redback spider


Female Redback spider
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Arachnida

Order: Araneae

Family: Theridiidae

Genus: Latrodectus

Species: L. hasselti


Binomial name
Latrodectus hasselti
Thorell, 1870
The Redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) is a potentially dangerous
spider native to Australia. It resembles a Black widow spider. It is a
member of the genus Latrodectus or the widow family of spiders, which
are found throughout the world. The female is easily recognisable by
its black body with prominent red stripe on its abdomen. Females have
a body length of about a centimetre while the male is smaller, being
only 3 to 4 millimetres long. The Redback spider is one of few animals
which display sexual cannibalism while mating.

Redbacks are considered one of the most dangerous spiders in Australia.
[1] The Redback spider has a neurotoxic venom which is toxic to humans
with bites causing severe pain. There is an antivenom for Redback
bites which is commercially available.

Contents [hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Physical description
3 Ecology and behaviour
3.1 Web
3.2 Prey
3.3 Life cycle
4 Reproduction
5 Distribution
5.1 Introductions
6 Toxicology
6.1 Bites in humans
6.2 Symptoms
6.3 Treatment
7 References
8 External links



[edit] Taxonomy
The Redback spider is a member of the spider genus Latrodectus, in the
family Theridiidae. It is related to the best known member of the
group, the black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) found in North
America and other regions. Close relatives of the Redback are the
katipo (Latrodectus katipo), which is native to New Zealand. The
common name of "Redback " is derived from its distinctive red stripe
along its abdomen. Other common names include Jockey spider, Murra-
ngura spider, Kapara spider and the Kanna-jeri spider.[2]

The species name is in honour of A.W.M. van Hasselt, a colleague of
the author, Tamerlan Thorell, who described it in 1870.[3][4]


[edit] Physical description

The distinctive red stripe of the Australian Redback spiderThe female
Redback has a round body about the size of large pea (1 centimetre
long), with long, slender legs. The body is a deep black colour
(occasionally brownish), often containing an obvious orange to red
longitudinal stripe on the upper abdomen. The stripe is sometimes
broken or looks like small red dots. On the underside of the abdomen
there is an "hourglass" shaped red/orange spot. Juvenile spiders have
additional white markings on the abdomen.

The male Redback is three to four millimetres long and is light brown
in colour with white markings on the upper side of the abdomen and a
pale hour-glass marking on the underside.[5]


[edit] Ecology and behaviour

Bites in humans
Redback spider bites rarely cause significant morbidity, and deaths
are even more rare[14]. A significant proportion of bites will not
result in envenoming or any symptoms developing. It is believed that
thousands of people are bitten each year across Australia, although
only about 20% of bite victims require treatment.[15] Children and the
elderly or those with serious medical conditions are at much higher
risk of severe side-effects and death resulting from a bite. No deaths
have been reported since the introduction of antivenom in 1956.[16]

The larger female spider is responsible for almost all cases of
Redback spider bites in humans. The smaller male spider was thought to
be unable to envenomate a human; however, male bites have occurred.
The rarity of male bites is probably due to smaller size and
proportionally smaller fangs rather than the male being incapable of
biting or lacking venom of similar potency of the female. Cases have
shown that the male bite usually only produces short-lived, mild pain.
[14]

Most bites occur in the warmer months between December and April and
in the afternoon or evening.[14][17] As the female Redback is slow
moving and rarely leaves its web, bites generally occur as a result of
a person placing a hand or other body part too close to the web, such
as reaching into dark holes or wall cavities. But bites can occur
wherever the spider may gain access, such as when putting on shoes or
dressing.[13]


[edit] Symptoms
Bites from Redback spiders produce a syndrome known as latrodectism.
The symptoms are similar to bites from other Latrodectus spiders. The
syndrome is generally characterised by extreme pain. Initially the
bite may be painful but sometimes only feels like a pin prick or mild
burning sensation. Within an hour victims generally develop more
severe local pain with local sweating and sometimes piloerection
(goosebumps). Pain, swelling and redness spread proximally from the
site. Systemic envenoming is heralded by swollen or tender regional
lymph nodes; associated features include malaise, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal or chest pain, generalised sweating, headache, fever,
hypertension and tremor.[13][14] Rare complications include seizure,
coma, pulmonary edema, respiratory failure or localised skin infection.
[17] Severe pain can persist for over 24 hours after being bitten.[18]


[edit] Treatment
Medical advice should be sought after being bitten by a Redback
spider. Usually this requires observation in or near a medical
facility for six hours from time of the bite.[13] Treatment is based
on the severity of the bite; patients with localised pain, swelling
and redness usually do not require any specific treatment apart from
applying ice and routine analgesics. In more severe bites the
definitive treatment consists of administering Redback antivenom.
Antivenom will usually give immediate relief to symptoms of systemic
envenoming.

Antivenom is indicated in anyone suffering symptoms consistent with
Latrodectus envenoming. Particular indications for using antivenom
are:

Pain and swelling spreading proximally from site
Chest pain
Abdominal pain
Unusual sweating
Currently it is recommended that this antivenom be given
intramuscularly(IM) rather than intravenously(IV), although some have
suggested that IM antivenom is not as effective as IV antivenom.[14]
[19] Adverse reactions to Redback antivenom are rare[20] and antivenom
may be effective for up to 3 months after a bite.[21] Doses for
children and adults are the same.

�t��֩��
�S���ٿƣ����ɵİٿ�ȫ��
���D��: ����, �ь�
Red-back spider


Female Red-back spider
�ƌW����
�磺 Animalia

�T�� Arthropoda

�V�� Arachnida

Ŀ�� Araneae

�ƣ� ��֩�ƣ�Theridiidae��

�٣� Latrodectus

�N�� L. hasselti


������
Latrodectus hasselti
Thorell, 1870
�t��֩�루Red-Back Spider�������a춰��ޡ�

�t��֩����һ�N�޶�֩�룬���L��2��8mm֮�g�������Ђ��tɫӡӛ�������ԘO������ҧ���������������_ʼ�l���lʹ�����oѪ���ί�����С�r������t��֩
��ƫ�×�Ϣ춺ڰ�Ǭ��̎�����Լt��֩�����ڽ���������֩���Ե���о��l�F����֩������ֻ��6��7���£���83%�����Լt��֩���ڛ]�н���֮ǰ�����
�ˡ�



Black Widow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Black widow spider)
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up black widow in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Black Widow is a common name of some spiders in the genus Latrodectus.
It may refer to:

North American species:
(Western) Black widow, Latrodectus hesperus
(Southern) Black widow, Latrodectus mactans
(Northern) Black widow, Latrodectus variolus
Australian:
Black widow, Latrodectus hasselti, also known as the Redback spider
New Zealand:
Black widow, Latrodectus katipo, also known as the katipo
European:
(European or Mediterranean) Black widow, Latrodectus tredecimguttatus
False black widow, spiders of the genus Steatoda, often mistaken for
widow spiders
Black Widow may also refer to:

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[edit] Animals
mrliu918
2009-06-06 07:00:51 UTC
Permalink
Black widow ��С�r�������ľ޶�֩�� --- �ڹѸ�

Quotation from wikipdia:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_widow_spider
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redback_spider
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_hesperus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_variolus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katipo
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latrodectus_tredecimguttatus
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False_black_widow


Redback spider
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Redback spider


Female Redback spider
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Arachnida

Order: Araneae

Family: Theridiidae

Genus: Latrodectus

Species: L. hasselti


Binomial name
Latrodectus hasselti
Thorell, 1870
The Redback spider (Latrodectus hasselti) is a potentially dangerous
spider native to Australia. It resembles a Black widow spider. It is a
member of the genus Latrodectus or the widow family of spiders, which
are found throughout the world. The female is easily recognisable by
its black body with prominent red stripe on its abdomen. Females have
a body length of about a centimetre while the male is smaller, being
only 3 to 4 millimetres long. The Redback spider is one of few animals
which display sexual cannibalism while mating.

Redbacks are considered one of the most dangerous spiders in Australia.
[1] The Redback spider has a neurotoxic venom which is toxic to humans
with bites causing severe pain. There is an antivenom for Redback
bites which is commercially available.

Contents [hide]
1 Taxonomy
2 Physical description
3 Ecology and behaviour
3.1 Web
3.2 Prey
3.3 Life cycle
4 Reproduction
5 Distribution
5.1 Introductions
6 Toxicology
6.1 Bites in humans
6.2 Symptoms
6.3 Treatment
7 References
8 External links



[edit] Taxonomy
The Redback spider is a member of the spider genus Latrodectus, in the
family Theridiidae. It is related to the best known member of the
group, the black widow spider (Latrodectus mactans) found in North
America and other regions. Close relatives of the Redback are the
katipo (Latrodectus katipo), which is native to New Zealand. The
common name of "Redback " is derived from its distinctive red stripe
along its abdomen. Other common names include Jockey spider, Murra-
ngura spider, Kapara spider and the Kanna-jeri spider.[2]

The species name is in honour of A.W.M. van Hasselt, a colleague of
the author, Tamerlan Thorell, who described it in 1870.[3][4]


[edit] Physical description

The distinctive red stripe of the Australian Redback spiderThe female
Redback has a round body about the size of large pea (1 centimetre
long), with long, slender legs. The body is a deep black colour
(occasionally brownish), often containing an obvious orange to red
longitudinal stripe on the upper abdomen. The stripe is sometimes
broken or looks like small red dots. On the underside of the abdomen
there is an "hourglass" shaped red/orange spot. Juvenile spiders have
additional white markings on the abdomen.

The male Redback is three to four millimetres long and is light brown
in colour with white markings on the upper side of the abdomen and a
pale hour-glass marking on the underside.[5]


[edit] Ecology and behaviour

Bites in humans
Redback spider bites rarely cause significant morbidity, and deaths
are even more rare[14]. A significant proportion of bites will not
result in envenoming or any symptoms developing. It is believed that
thousands of people are bitten each year across Australia, although
only about 20% of bite victims require treatment.[15] Children and the
elderly or those with serious medical conditions are at much higher
risk of severe side-effects and death resulting from a bite. No deaths
have been reported since the introduction of antivenom in 1956.[16]

The larger female spider is responsible for almost all cases of
Redback spider bites in humans. The smaller male spider was thought to
be unable to envenomate a human; however, male bites have occurred.
The rarity of male bites is probably due to smaller size and
proportionally smaller fangs rather than the male being incapable of
biting or lacking venom of similar potency of the female. Cases have
shown that the male bite usually only produces short-lived, mild pain.
[14]

Most bites occur in the warmer months between December and April and
in the afternoon or evening.[14][17] As the female Redback is slow
moving and rarely leaves its web, bites generally occur as a result of
a person placing a hand or other body part too close to the web, such
as reaching into dark holes or wall cavities. But bites can occur
wherever the spider may gain access, such as when putting on shoes or
dressing.[13]


[edit] Symptoms
Bites from Redback spiders produce a syndrome known as latrodectism.
The symptoms are similar to bites from other Latrodectus spiders. The
syndrome is generally characterised by extreme pain. Initially the
bite may be painful but sometimes only feels like a pin prick or mild
burning sensation. Within an hour victims generally develop more
severe local pain with local sweating and sometimes piloerection
(goosebumps). Pain, swelling and redness spread proximally from the
site. Systemic envenoming is heralded by swollen or tender regional
lymph nodes; associated features include malaise, nausea, vomiting,
abdominal or chest pain, generalised sweating, headache, fever,
hypertension and tremor.[13][14] Rare complications include seizure,
coma, pulmonary edema, respiratory failure or localised skin infection.
[17] Severe pain can persist for over 24 hours after being bitten.[18]


[edit] Treatment
Medical advice should be sought after being bitten by a Redback
spider. Usually this requires observation in or near a medical
facility for six hours from time of the bite.[13] Treatment is based
on the severity of the bite; patients with localised pain, swelling
and redness usually do not require any specific treatment apart from
applying ice and routine analgesics. In more severe bites the
definitive treatment consists of administering Redback antivenom.
Antivenom will usually give immediate relief to symptoms of systemic
envenoming.

Antivenom is indicated in anyone suffering symptoms consistent with
Latrodectus envenoming. Particular indications for using antivenom
are:

Pain and swelling spreading proximally from site
Chest pain
Abdominal pain
Unusual sweating
Currently it is recommended that this antivenom be given
intramuscularly(IM) rather than intravenously(IV), although some have
suggested that IM antivenom is not as effective as IV antivenom.[14]
[19] Adverse reactions to Redback antivenom are rare[20] and antivenom
may be effective for up to 3 months after a bite.[21] Doses for
children and adults are the same.

�t��֩��
�S���ٿƣ����ɵİٿ�ȫ��
���D��: ����, �ь�
Red-back spider


Female Red-back spider
�ƌW����
�磺 Animalia

�T�� Arthropoda

�V�� Arachnida

Ŀ�� Araneae

�ƣ� ��֩�ƣ�Theridiidae��

�٣� Latrodectus

�N�� L. hasselti


������
Latrodectus hasselti
Thorell, 1870
�t��֩�루Red-Back Spider�������a춰��ޡ�

�t��֩����һ�N�޶�֩�룬���L��2��8mm֮�g�������Ђ��tɫӡӛ�������ԘO������ҧ���������������_ʼ�l���lʹ�����oѪ���ί�����С�r������t��֩
��ƫ�×�Ϣ춺ڰ�Ǭ��̎�����Լt��֩�����ڽ���������֩���Ե���о��l�F����֩������ֻ��6��7���£���83%�����Լt��֩���ڛ]�н���֮ǰ�����
�ˡ�



Black Widow
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Black widow spider)
Jump to: navigation, search
Look up black widow in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Black Widow is a common name of some spiders in the genus Latrodectus.
It may refer to:

North American species:
(Western) Black widow, Latrodectus hesperus
(Southern) Black widow, Latrodectus mactans
(Northern) Black widow, Latrodectus variolus
Australian:
Black widow, Latrodectus hasselti, also known as the Redback spider
New Zealand:
Black widow, Latrodectus katipo, also known as the katipo
European:
(European or Mediterranean) Black widow, Latrodectus tredecimguttatus
False black widow, spiders of the genus Steatoda, often mistaken for
widow spiders
Black Widow may also refer to:

Contents [hide]
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[edit] Animals
mrliu918
2009-06-11 07:29:19 UTC
Permalink
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon

Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980

1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC

1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel

1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba

1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory

1959 – 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam

1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-06-11 08:41:52 UTC
Permalink
Are you serious?

There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.

However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century. Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.

If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .

If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.

Sincerely



Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_War
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon



Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980


1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory

1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC

1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel

1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory


1959 – 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory

1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam

1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-06-12 03:00:35 UTC
Permalink
ROC, Taiwan in full retreat from year 1988 to 2009,

Turning point of Mainland policy in Taiwan - from Three Noes to Three
link

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Noes
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E4%B8%8D%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Links
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E9%80%9A


Three Noes
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Three-Noes Policy (Chinese: ��������) is a policy in the 1980s
maintained by President Chiang Ching-kuo of the Republic of China,
commonly known as "Taiwan", in response to the People's Republic of
China's attempts to have direct contact with the ROC (see Three
Links). When the United States broke diplomatic ties with the ROC in
1979, the PRC believed that it had complete leverage in convincing the
ROC government to talk. President Chiang Ching-kuo stubbornly refused,
reiterating that there were to be "no contact, no compromise, and no
negotiation" (�����|����Մ�У����ׅf) with the Chinese Communists.
The hijacking of a Taiwan-based China Airlines cargo plane on May 3,
1986 shattered the "Three Noes" policy. The pilot Wang Shi-chuen
subdued the two other members of the flight crew and commandeered the
plane to Guangzhou, forcing the ROC government to publicly send
unofficial envoys to negotiate in Hong Kong with PRC officials over
the return of the plane and the flight crew. The pilot, credited by
the PRC for reestablishing contact between mainland China and Taiwan,
received a hero's welcome in mainland China and became a senior PRC
aviation official as well as serving as a so-called "Taiwanese
delegate" to PRC government institutions.
During this time, many mainland China-born ROC armed forces veterans
pressed President Chiang Ching-kuo to allow family reunions between
the mainland Chinese who settled in Taiwan after the Chinese Civil War
and their relatives in mainland China. President Chiang relented in
1987, authorizing the ROC Red Cross to issue permits allowing people
from Taiwan to travel to Chinese Mainland only for family reunions.
This started the regular civilian and unofficial exchanges between the
PRC and the ROC that continues to progress to this day.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Noes"

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Three Links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The Three Links or Three Linkages (Chinese: ��ͨ; Pinyin: S��n t��ng) was
a "message of Compatriots in Taiwan" calling for the reunification of
China. It was sent by the PRC National People's Congress in 1979.[1]
The three links include direct postal (ͨ�]/ͨ�� T��ng y��u), transportation
(especially airline) (ͨ�� T��ng h��ng), and trade (ͨ�� T��ng sh��ng) links
between mainland China and Taiwan. Communication between the two sides
were routed through intermediate destinations, primarily Hong Kong,
Macau and Jeju, South Korea. The "Three Links" were officially
restored on 15 December 2008, with the commencement of direct flights,
shipping and post.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Proposal
1.2 Lead-up to liberalization
1.3 Limited liberalization
1.4 Further liberalization
1.5 Full restoration
2 Controversies
3 Impact
3.1 Transit points
3.2 Air services
4 See also
5 References
6 External links


[edit] History
[edit] Proposal
In December 1978 after Deng Xiaoping and his supporters won the Third
Plenum of the 11th Central Committee of the Communist Party of China,
it started China's economic reform. This also began a new direction in
PRC's foreign policy.[2] On January 1, 1979 Beijing proposed the Three
Links of postal, commercial and transportation.[2] It was also
proposed together with the Four flows/Four exchanges which included
relatives, tourists, academic groups, cultural groups and sports
representatives.[1][2] This was greeted in Taiwan by President Chiang
Ching-kuo's Three Noes.
[edit] Lead-up to liberalization
While the PRC and ROC agree in principle on opening the Three Links,
there were over-riding concerns. According to the Mainland Affairs
Council of the ROC, the major obstacle resided in the PRC's One-China
position which does not recognize the sovereignty of the ROC. The
Council stated that the Three links would only be considered when the
PRC stops its animosity against ROC sovereignty and improved the cross-
strait relationship.[3] The PRC government considers the cross-strait
flights as domestic flights, according to the One China Policy.
However, the ROC's Democratic Progressive Party government in Taiwan
regarded this position the same as recognising Taiwan (ROC) as a part
of the PRC and thus would compromise the ROC sovereignty.
The previous administration led by President Chen Shui-bian, who was
in power from 2000 to 2008, was keen to establish direct links under
his "four noes and one without" pledge. China reacted with caution
however, and was eventually infuriated when Chen spoke of "one country
on each side of the Taiwan Strait", and the Taiwanese administration
believed establishment of the links would not be possible. However,
China eventually shifted its position when it realised that the three
links may be an opportunity to hold on to Taiwan, with its Ministry of
Transport and former Chinese foreign minister Qian Qichen declaring
that the "one China" principle would no longer be necessary during
talks to establish the links, which would be labelled merely as
"special cross-strait flights" and not "international" nor "domestic"
flights.[4]
In 2004, Beijing declared a cross-strait expressway project linking
Beijing to Taipei connecting the two sides of the Taiwan Straits
together. However, due to the potential technical difficulties, some
people in Taipei consider this move as political propaganda.[5]
The Three Links are mentioned in the Anti-Secession Law of the
People's Republic of China.
[edit] Limited liberalization

On January 29, 2005, China Airlines flight CAL581 landed in Beijing,
People's Republic of China.
Main article: Cross-strait charter
Under the DPP government, gradual steps were taken to lift
restrictions on the three links. The so-called Little Three Links,
also referred to as Mini Three Links or Three Small Links (С��ͨ; xi��o
s��n t��ng) allows for limited postal, transportation, and trade links
between the People's Republic of China's Fujian province cities of
Xiamen, Mawei and Quanzhou, and the islands of Kinmen and Matsu, which
are administered by the Republic of China. When introduced in January
2001, they allowed only those with household registrations in Kinmen
and Matsu to use the trade links, as well as China-based Taiwan
businessmen. Travels must be done in groups. Restrictions were lifted
to allow individual travellers, as well as to open the routes to
former residents and relatives of Kinmen and Matsu. Quanzhou was also
added to the list in the same year.[6]
The ferry trip, which takes as little as 20 minutes, involved regular
routes connecting Kinmen and Matsu to the ports of Xiamen, Mawei and
Quanzhou. Occasional trips were also made between Kinmen and Meizhou,
a popular religious site.[7] The routes saw 21,377 entries and exits
in 2001. It balloned to 341,152 in 2006,[8] but still represents a
small part of overall trade.
In early 2003, the Republic of China (ROC) government permitted its
air carriers to ferry Chinese New Year passengers back and forth
across the Strait by way of "indirect charter flights" that touched
down briefly in Hong Kong or Macau. The ROC and People's Republic of
China (PRC) did not repeat the charter flights during the 2004 Chinese
New Year, in part because the two sides could not agree on the terms
for meetings to discuss how PRC carriers might also participate.
The two sides agreed to permit cross-strait flights for the Chinese
New Year of Rooster in 2005. Unlike the 2003 flights, the 2005 flights
did not have to touch down in Hong Kong or Macau, but still must enter
its airspace. The first direct commercial flights from the mainland
China (from Guangzhou) to Taiwan since 1949 arrived in Taipei on
January 29, 2005. Shortly afterwards, a China Airlines carrier landed
in Beijing. Airports on both sides saw ceremonial displays on the
arrival of the first passengers, with dancing lions and dragons, and
officials making speeches. For the three week holiday period, 48
flights were scheduled.
On 19 July 2006, the first direct chartered all-cargo flight since
1949 operated by China Airlines landed in Shanghai from Taipei.[9]
Four other flights were operated, with the last on 10 August 2006 in
August 2008.[10]
[edit] Further liberalization
In the leadup to the 2008 presidential elections in Taiwan, the
Kuomintang candidate, Ma Ying-jeou, pledged opening the Three Links at
an accelerated rate should he be elected president. The ruling DPP has
traditionally been reluctant to implement this, citing the PRC's
refusal to negotiate unless the Taiwanese counterparty accepts the one-
China principle under the 1992 consensus. In June 2007, DPP
presidential candidate Frank Hsieh criticised Ma's plans as a
reflection of his lack of experience in handling cross-strait affairs.
He also stressed that while the direct links may benefit Taiwan
economically, Taiwan's values must not be compromised as a result.[11]
On 29 February 2008, Ma announced plans to commence weekend charter
flights by 1 July 2008, which will be expanded to daily charters by
the end of the year. Regular scheduled flights may commence by June
2009.[12] The airports of Taoyuan, Taipei, Taichung, Kaohsiung,
Hualien, Taitung, and Penghu will be open for these cross-strait
flights, while the seaports of Keelung, Taipei, Taichung, Kaohsiung,
Hualien, Chiayi, and Tainan will be open to direct shipping routes.
All restrictions limiting the scope of the "mini three links" will be
lifted, including allowing all Taiwanese to use them. Hsieh responded
by promising to expand cross-strait charter flights within three
months after taking office, including increased flight frequencies and
the addition of destinations on the Chinese mainland which may be
flown to.[13] Both liberalisation plans were greeted by enthusiasm
amongst Taiwanese airlines.[14]
Formal agreements to launch regular weekend charter flights were
signed on 13 June 2008, allowing for an initial 36 return flights per
weekend from Friday to Monday, divided equally to allow 18 return
flights amongst up to six mainland and six Taiwan-based airlines
respectively. The agreement will involve five airports from the
mainland, including those in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Xiamen and
Nanjing, and eight airports in Taiwan,[15] namely Taipei Taoyuan
International Airport, Kaohsiung International Airport, Taichung
Airport, Taipei Songshan Airport, Makung Airport, Hualien Airport,
Kinmen Airport and Taitung Airport. Flights to mainland cities of
Chengdu, Chongqing, Hangzhou, Dalian, Guilin and Shenzhen may be added
later.[16] The first flights are scheduled to commence on 4 July 2008,
and flight frequencies may be increased on demand, with expectations
to increase to 72 each weekend after the 2008 Olympic Games.[17] For
the first time, the flights will be open to anyone holding valid
travel documents, and will no longer be restricted to mainlanders and
Taiwanese residents only, and no longer required to fly through the
Hong Kong FIR. There are also frequency caps on certain sectors:
flights from Shanghai to Taiwan are capped at nine return trips each
week, while those from the mainland to Taichung must not exceed six
return flights each week. There will be no restrictions out of Nanjing.
[18]
On 17 June 2008, the Civil Aviation Administration of China announced
that the 18 return flights available to Chinese airlines will be
apportioned such that Air China and Hainan Airlines will fly to Taiwan
from Beijing with four return flights and two return flights
respectively; China Eastern Airlines and Shanghai Airlines will fly
from Shanghai to Taiwan with four return flights and two return
flights respectively; China Southern Airlines fly depart for Taiwan
from Guangzhou for four return flights per week, and Xiamen Airlines
will connect Xiamen with Taiwan with two weekly return flights.[19]
Allocation amongst Taiwanese carriers was adjusted from six airlines
to five after the suspension of Far Eastern Air Transport. A rotating
allocation system was adopted, whereby in the first week, Mandarin
Airlines, TransAsia Airways and UNI Air would fly four return flights
each and China Airlines and EVA Airways will fly three flights each,
and in the second week, four flights will be operated by TransAsia
Airways, UNI Air and China Airlines, while EVA Airways and Mandarin
Airlines will fly three flights. The rights will be rotated through in
subsequent weeks such that each airline will fly in aggregate the same
number of flights every five weeks.[20] On the Taiwan-Shanghai route,
three airlines will be allocated two roundtrip flights each week, and
another airline one weekly flight, to be cycled through the five
airlines.[21] China Airlines and its subsidiary Mandarin Airlines
would fly seven round-trips a week, with four to Shanghai, two to
Beijing and one to Guangzhou from Kaohsiung, Makung, Taichung and
Taipei. Eva Air and subsidiary UNI Air would fly from Taiwan Taoyuan,
Songshan and Kaohsiung to Shanghai, Beijing and Guangzhou, while
TransAsia Airways will operate from Songshan to Shanghai, Guangzhou
and Xiamen.[22] China Airlines and its Mandarin Airlines subsidiary
would offer 29 return flights in the month of July to Shanghai,
Beijing, Guangzhou and Xiamen,[23] while Eva Air would offer 7 flights
per week initially from Taiwan Taoyuan and Songshan airports.[24]
Announced routes so far are as follows:
Announced Cross-straits flights[25][26] Airline Chinese airport
Taiwanese airport Flights per week
(Week commencing
4 July 2008) Aircraft Remarks
Air China Beijing Capital International Airport Taiwan Taoyuan
International Airport 2 (Fridays and Sundays)
Air China Shanghai Pudong International Airport Taiwan Taoyuan
International Airport 2 (Fridays and Sundays)
China Airlines Beijing Capital International Airport Taiwan Taoyuan
International Airport
China Airlines Shanghai Pudong International Airport Taiwan Taoyuan
International Airport
China Eastern Airlines Shanghai Pudong International Airport Taiwan
Taoyuan International Airport 1 (Sundays) Airbus A321
China Eastern Airlines Shanghai Pudong International Airport Taipei
Songshan Airport 2 (Mondays and Fridays) Airbus A321
China Eastern Airlines Nanjing Lukou International Airport Taipei
Songshan Airport 1 (Fridays) Airbus A321
Mandarin Airlines Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport Makung Airport
Embraer 190
Mandarin Airlines Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport Taichung Airport
Embraer 190
Shanghai Airlines Shanghai Pudong International Airport Taipei
Songshan Airport 2 (Fridays and Sundays) Boeing 767-300ER First flight
to commence[27]

Negotiators are expected to meet again in Taiwan to tackle outstanding
issues, including revisiting the issue of introducing cross-strait
charter cargo flights within three months,[28] the introduction of
direct flight routes without the need to fly via Hong Kong airspace
[16] and subsequent addition of destinations and frequencies.[29]
On 19 June 2008, the "Little Three Links" between the islands of
Kinmen and Matsu and Fujian was greatly liberalised, allowing any
Taiwanese to use the ferry services by travelling to either island on
their onward journey into Fujian province and beyond. In response,
several Taiwanese airlines increased flights to Kinmen, including
Mandarin Airlines (increased Taipei-Kinmen flights), Trans Asia
Airways (an additional weekly Taipei-Kinmen flight) and UNI Airways
Corporation (increase Taipei-Kinmen flights by one or two each week,
for a total of 24 weekly flights). Still, the sudden surge in
travellers caused flights to become overbooked in the immediately
aftermath of liberalization.[30] There were calls for further
relaxation on travel restrictions of Chinese travelling into the
islands so as to enable them to also travel onwards to the main island.
[31] Work was also needed to correct the current trade and movement
imbalance, where 300,000 Taiwanese travel via the route to reach the
mainland, compared to 37,000 Chinese who travel in the opposite
direction. On the other hand, the volume of Chinese goods using the
route was significantly higher compared to Taiwanese goods. The MAC
chairman Lai Hsin-yuan remarked that the Straits Exchange Foundation
will negotiate with the Association of Relations Across the Taiwan
Straits to allow the Chinese to travel to Taiwan via the route, and to
lift a US$100,000 trade value ceiling imposed by the Chinese on
Taiwanese goods using the route.[32]
[edit] Full restoration
Full restoration of the Three Links officially commenced on 15
December 2008, with inaugural direct shipping, direct flights, and
direct mail.[33]
[edit] Controversies
During the period of the direct charter flights, the PRC state media
stressed that they were domestic flights, whereas the ROC government
stressed that they were international flights.[citation needed]
In reaction to 13 June 2008 agreements, the DPP criticised the
government of "yielding to China", and accused Straits Exchange
Foundation Chairman Chiang Pin-kung of "defying the legislature",
saying the "Statute Governing Relations Between the Peoples of the
Taiwan Area and the Mainland Area (�ɰ������P�S�l��) stipulates that
legislative resolutions are required before any direct cross-strait
links are opened", which was not carried out. Chiang dismissed the
accusations, saying he followed the precedent set by former SEF
chairman Koo Chen-fu, and would "report to the legislature's Home and
Nations Committee instead of the legislative caucuses".[34]
The DPP and the Pan-Green Coalition has routinely claimed there was a
potential compromise on Taiwan's national security should there be
liberal three links, suggesting the PRC could disguise troop carriers
as commercial aircraft to invade Taiwan, a charge met by criticism
from both the PRC and the Pan-Blue Coalition. In the wake of 13 June
2008 agreements, the DPP raised the issue of national security again,
criticising its plans to open up to eight airports when China would
open only five. The eight airports included Hualien and Taitung, which
also operate as military airfields, thus creating a security threat.
They also expressed concern over the possibility of absconding Chinese
tourists.[34] A defense ministry report on 18 May 2008 concluded that
direct charter flights would be a national security threat, and the
air force has reportedly expressed concern that six of the airports
except the Taiwan Taoyuan and Kaohsiung airports have military
installations and aircraft. The Vice Minister of National Defense Lin
Chen-yi has further recommended to maintain indirect flight routes via
a third party's air space on 23 May 2008. But on 18 June 2008, the
Minister of National Defense Chen Chao-min declared that direct
flights without the involvement of any third party air space would not
pose a threat to national security, saying "The final routes for
direct charter flights shall be decided by the Mainland Affairs
Council and the Ministry of Transportation and Communications. We will
submit recommendations to the MOTC that take national security into
consideration, but I do not foresee any problems if the flights travel
directly between Taiwan and China".[35]
The DPP gave itself credit for having "laid the groundwork" for
opening weekend charter flights and allowing Chinese tourists into
Taiwan, both of which did not occur under KMT rule, and criticised the
current negotiators as being "inexperienced and ill-prepared".[34]
[edit] Impact
Visitor data from Taiwan's Mainland Affairs Council indicates that the
mainland China-Taiwan aviation market is about 8 million passengers
annually just prior to the June 2008 agreements, and may be expected
to immediately increased to 10 million as a result of liberalisation.
IATA's figures puts the market figure at about 6 million passengers
annually based on number of air tickets issued, with the Shanghai-
Taipei pair accounting for 40% of the entire market. The ten biggest
markets are as follows:
Top ten city-pairs on the cross-Strait aviation market
(one-way mainland to Taiwan traffic figures)[36] Mainland port
Taiwanese port 2005 2006 2007
Shanghai Taipei 1,056,000 1,179,000 1,249,000
Beijing Taipei 227,000 257,000 274,000
Shanghai Kaohsiung 167,000 183,000 198,000
Xiamen Taipei 149,000 141,000 134,000
Hangzhou Taipei 65,000 100,000 104,000
Nanjing Taipei 61,000 92,000 84,000
Fuzhou Taipei 71,000 74,000 72,000
Guangzhou Taipei 70,000 61,000 69,000
Shenzhen Taipei 81,000 99,000 55,000

[edit] Transit points
The enforcement of the ban on direct trade links has benefited third
party transit points, in particular Hong Kong, since 1988. Current
China-Taiwan traffic channels about 60% of its traffic via Hong Kong,
30% via Macau, and the rest via other points such as Jeju. In 1997,
the Taipei-Hong Kong air route alone constituted one-sixth of the
passengers handled at the Hong Kong Airport with five million
passengers,[37] and by 2001, this figure has jumped to 6.7 million. In
the fiscal year 2006-07, the Taipei-Hong Kong air route accounted for
18% of Hong Kong's 45 million passengers, making it one of the busiest
international air routes by passenger numbers in the world.[38]
1.6 million air travellers flew into China from Hong Kong in 1996,[39]
and in 2000, 18% of Hong Kong's 2.4 million tourists came from Taiwan,
out of which 36% of them traveled on to the mainland with or without
staying in Hong Kong.[40] In the five year period from 2003 to 2007
there were an average of 3.68 million passengers annually who travel
through Hong Kong between the two locations. Today, about 60% of
Taiwan-Hong Kong traffic connects onwards to flights into the Chinese
mainland, and for the Macau-Taiwan sector, about 80%.[36]
Currently, over 3,000 flights offering nearly 1 million seats are
operated every month by five airlines, namely China Airlines, Cathay
Pacific, Dragonair, EVA Air and Thai Airways International, between
Hong Kong and Taipei. In addition, flights are operated between Hong
Kong and Kaohsiung by China Airlines, Dragonair and Mandarin Airlines,
and between Hong Kong and Taichung by Dragonair, Hong Kong Express
Airways, Mandarin Airlines and Uni Air. Summary of flights through
Hong Kong and Macau are as follows:
Cross-straits flights between Taiwan and Hong Kong/Macau[41][42]
Airline Third destination airport Taiwanese airport Flights per
week
(Week commencing
16 June 2008) Remarks
Cathay Pacific Hong Kong International Airport Taipei Taoyuan
International Airport 108
China Airlines Hong Kong International Airport Taipei Taoyuan
International Airport 93
Dragonair Hong Kong International Airport Taipei Taoyuan International
Airport 28
EVA Air Hong Kong International Airport Taipei Taoyuan International
Airport 56
Thai Airways International Hong Kong International Airport Taipei
Taoyuan International Airport 7 Through-traffic from Bangkok only
China Airlines Hong Kong International Airport Kaohsiung International
Airport 12
Dragonair Hong Kong International Airport Kaohsiung International
Airport 35
Mandarin Airlines Hong Kong International Airport Kaohsiung
International Airport 17
Dragonair Hong Kong International Airport Taichung Airport 7
Hong Kong Express Airways Hong Kong International Airport Taichung
Airport 7
Mandarin Airlines Hong Kong International Airport Taichung Airport
14
Uni Air Hong Kong International Airport Taichung Airport 11
Air Macau Macau International Airport Taipei Taoyuan International
Airport 56
EVA Air Macau International Airport Taipei Taoyuan International
Airport 28
TransAsia Airways Macau International Airport Taipei Taoyuan
International Airport 42
Air Macau Macau International Airport Kaohsiung International Airport
18
EVA Air Macau International Airport Kaohsiung International Airport
14
TransAsia Airways Macau International Airport Kaohsiung International
Airport 14

Conversely, liberation of the three links may have adverse economic
consequences on Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Airport Authority's chairman
Victor Fung Kwok-king estimated up to 6% reduction in air travel
through Hong Kong as a result of direct China-Taiwan flights.[43] The
city's tourism operators estimated losses of over HK$3 billion
annually should the three links be liberated in 2008.[44] A possible
6.6% reduction in tourism in Hong Kong may be limited in economic
impact as transit passengers typically spend far less during transit,
but it may have significant impact on Hong Kong-based airlines, in
particular Cathay Pacific and its affiliate Dragonair.[40] It was
reported on 18 May 2008 that Taiwan's China Airlines intents to trim
its Taiwan-Hong Kong flights by two to three flights per day once
direct flights resume in July 2008,[43] but the airline denied this,
saying "when cross-strait relations improve and market trends are
clearer, then we'll make a specific plan".[45] Chinese Premier Wen
Jiabao believes Hong Kong will not be affected as the increased
economic exchange may benefit the city too.[46] In the immediate
aftermath of the announcements for 4 July direct flights, shares of
Cathay Pacific fell by 1.8% over fears of its negative impact on the
airline, which derives significant profits from the route.[47] Shares
of Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport and Shanghai Airlines gained
1.18% and 1.27% respectively over expectations of possible gains from
the deal.[48]
[edit] Air services
Gradual liberalization has paved the way for direct coorperation
between airlines from both sides. China Southern Airlines and China
Airlines announced their intention to seal a strategic cooperation
contract on 23 June 2008 for coorporation on the weekend chartered
flights, soon after the announcement of their liberalization.[49]
Officials from each of the three largest Chinese airlines also flew to
Taiwan with attempts to negotiate with Taiwanese airlines on
coorperation deals, with likely coorperation between all parties in
areas including marketing, ground services, maintenance and airline
catering.[50]
The impending competition also prompted the main Chinese airlines to
embark on a publicity blitz, highlighting their intentions to provide
their best aircraft, crew and service to passengers, including
customised in-flight meals to suit tastes from both sides.[51]
Announced ticket prices for the first flights were shown to be almost
similar to those requiring a stopover, negating expectations of the
direct flights depressing ticket prices except on the Xiamen-Taipei
route. This was due to high fuel costs, but prices were not expected
to rise further.[52]
[edit] See also
History of the Republic of China
Chinese reunification
Anti-Secession Law of the People's Republic of China
Political status of Taiwan
Politics of Taiwan
Taiwan independence
[edit] References
^ a b Tsang, Steve Yui-Sang. [1993] (1993). In the Shadow of China:
Political Developments in Taiwan Since 1949. University of Hawaii
Press. ISBN 0824815831, 9780824815837. pg 31.
^ a b c Lin, Zhiling. Robinson, Thomas W. [1994] (1994). The Chinese
and Their Future: Beijing, Taipei and Hong Kong. Published by American
Enterprise Institute. ISBN 0844738042. pg 356.
^ �ɰ�����ͨ�������f��
^ Taipei Times - archives
^ The Standard - Mainland to triple highway network - Top Stories
^ AFP: Taiwan expands shipping links with China: official
^ Taiwan residents allowed to take direct sea service from Kinmen,
Matsu to mainland_English_Xinhua
^ Taiwan residents can ferry to China - The China Post
^ BBC news | Asia-Pacific | Taiwan-China cargo flight lands
^ People's Daily Online - More direct cargo flights set between Taiwan
and Chinese mainland
^ Taipei Times - archives
^ Ma sets timetable for cross-strait air travel - The China Post
^ Expansion of direct flights welcomed - The China Post
^ Airlines welcome Ma's cross-strait flight plan - The China Post
^ Mainland, Taiwan agree on weekend charter flights, direct cross-
Strait flights to be discussed_English_Xinhua
^ a b Mainland, Taiwan ink deal to boost flights, tourism - Shanghai
Daily | �Ϻ��ձ� - English Window to China New
^ Taipei, Beijing reach historic pacts - The China Post
^ CAAC Assigns Mainland Airlines' Weekend Charter Flights - China
Hospitality News - The Digest of Corporate and Leisure Travel
Planning
^ Aviation watchdog announces flight schedule to Taiwan - Shanghai
Daily | �Ϻ��ձ� - English Window to China New
^ Five Taiwanese airlines to operate China flights
^ Five Taiwanese carriers to serve 18 weekend charter flights to China
| Airlines | News | en.AvBuyer.com.cn
^ CCTV International
^ CAL to start charter flights to Shanghai and Beijing - The China
Post
^ Eva Air eyes cooperation with China peers for direct flights - The
China Post
^ Eastern Airlines to Open Weekend Charter Flights to Taiwan
^ CAL and AE Prepare to Launch Direct Weekend Charter Flights to
Mainland China - China Airlines, Airports and Aviation News
^ IEL China Industry Daily News -Shanghai Airlines to Open Mainland
China - Taiwan Charter Flights
^ Ma seeks more cross-strait talks - The China Post
^ CENS.com - The Taiwan Economic News
^ Direct flights via Kinmen applauded - The China Post
^ Taiwan residents can ferry to China - The China Post
^ CENS.com - The Taiwan Economic News
^ China Post - Direct across-strait links in place today, Taipei 15
December 2008
^ a b c Taipei Times - archives
^ Taipei Times - archives
^ a b Opening the flood gates: airlines allowed to fly between China
and Taiwan
^ IngentaConnect Deregulating direct flights across the Taiwan Strait:
the transfo
^ More flights for Taiwan Hong Kong airspace
^ The Hong Kong Tail That Wags the China Dragon
^ a b The impact of "three links" on Hong Kong (hktdc.com)
^ Hong Kong International Airport - Flight Information - Flight
Planner - Arrival Flights
^ [Macau International Airport]
^ a b Direct links could cost HK 6% of traffic - The China Post
^ SCMP.com - the online edition of South China Morning Post, Hong
Kong's premier English-language newspaper
^ China Airlines has no immediate plan to cut HK flights-
International Business-News-The Economic Times
^ Wen offers Taiwan talks - The Irish Times - Sun, March 30, 2008
^ Hong Kong shares close lower led by China stocks, property
developers UPDATE - Forbes.com
^ http://www.forbes.com/home/feeds/reuters/2008/06/13/2008-06-13T081355Z_01_SHA27635_RTRIDST_0_MARKETS-CHINA-STOCKS-CLOSE-UPDATE-1.html
Forbes.com
^ Mainland, Taiwan ink deal to boost flights, tourism - Shanghai Daily
| �Ϻ��ձ� - English Window to China New
^ Taiwan's China Airlines to cooperate with Air China, 2 others -
report
^ Flying across Straits
^ Beijing Capital International Airport
[edit] External links
List of articles related to the Three Links at Taiwan Headlines
"Direct China-Taiwan flights start" at BBC News, referenced 29
January, 2005
Wikinews: Taiwan-China flights begin
Taiwan Security Research on three=links
[hide] v * d * eCross-Strait relations



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Post by mrliu918
Are you serious?
There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.
However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century. Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.
If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .
If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.
Sincerely
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980
1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC
1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel
1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory
1959 - 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam
1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-06-13 03:06:53 UTC
Permalink
Quotation form wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Cooperation

Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Indo-Soviet Union relations

India Soviet Union
The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was a
treaty signed between India the Soviet Union in August 1971 that
specified mutual strategic cooperation. The treaty was a significant
deviation from India's previous position of Non-alignment in the Cold
War[1] and in the prelude to the Bangladesh war, it was a key
development in a situation of increasing Sino-American ties and
American pressure.[2][3] The treaty was later adopted to the Indo-
Bangladesh Treaty of Friendship and cooperation in 1972.[4]

Contents [hide]
1 Indo-Soviet relations
1.1 Early relations
1.2 Late 1960s
2 Post-cold war ties
3 References



[edit] Indo-Soviet relations

[edit] Early relations
India's relation to the Soviet Union initially after the former's
independence was ambivalent, guided by Nehru's decision to remain non-
aligned, and his government's active part in the Commonwealth of
Nations. However, in February 1954, the U.S. administration of
President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced the decision to provide arms
to Pakistan, followed a month later by Pakistan joining the SEATO and
subsequently the CENTO. These agreements assured Pakistan the supply
of sophisticated military hardware and economic aid.[4]

The developing situation alarmed New Delhi, which had uncomfortable
relations with Pakistan. Since Pakistan also bordered the Soviet
Union, it also provided Moscow with the necessity as well as the
opportunity to develop its relations with New Delhi. India’s status as
a leader of the Non-aligned Movement would also allow the USSR to
bolster Soviet policy in the Third World. India and the USSR therefore
pursued similar policies based on common security threat born out of
the US interests in Pakistan. It was in this context that India and
Soviet Union exchanged military Attaches.[4] Although Indo-Soviet
cooperation had begun, the investment of soviet-military aid to India
only begun in the context of deteriorating Sino-Soviet and Sino-Indian
relations. Following the 1962 Sino-Indian war, the Sino-Pakistani axis
was also an impetus for growing cooperation between India and the
soviet union.[4]


[edit] Late 1960s
mrliu918
2009-06-13 03:41:14 UTC
Permalink
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_France

Ten things you may not know about Wikipedia.List of colleges and
universities in France
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from List of universities in France)
Jump to: navigation, search
French science
Higher education
EPCSP University-grade institutes
Universities
Autonomous institutes
Écoles normales supérieures
Grands établissements
Grandes écoles

EPST (public research labs)
Cemagref (agriculture)
CNRS (fundamental sciences)
INED (demography)
INRA (agronomy)
INRETS (transports)
INRIA (IT and automatic)
INSERM (medecine)
IRD (development)
LCPC (civil engineering)
EPIC (public industry)
CEA (nuclear industry)
Ifremer (maritime applications)
ONERA (aerospace)
The French public higher education system includes universities and
other higher education institutes, that provide both education
curricula and related degrees up to doctoral degree and also
contribute to research activities. They are the backbone of the
tertiary education institutions in France. They are listed as
different categories, depending on their administrative status, size
and extents of research activity compared to educational activities.

Aside to the nationally-funded public education system that provides
recognised degrees to the vast majority of students in France and that
keeps tuition fees low, there exist private institutes.

Contents [hide]
1 Public universities in France
2 Public technical universities, institutes of technologies and
autonomous scientific higher education institutes
3 Other higher education institutes
3.1 Grandes écoles
3.2 Art schools
3.3 Private universities
4 See also
5 External links



[edit] Public universities in France
The eighty-one French public universities are organised per
administrative 'académie'. Some of them have a joint collegial
university cluster organisation for research, that is referred-to as
'Pôle de recherche et d'enseignement supérieur (PRES)'.

Main articles: List of public universities in France and Pôle de
recherche et d'enseignement supérieur
Hereafter is indicated the name of the académie with the name of the
PRES in brackets when applicable, then the list of related
universities in the 'académie'.

Aix-Marseille (PRES Aix-Marseille University): Provence ·
Mediterranean · Cézanne · Avignon

Amiens: Verne

Besançon: Franche-Comté

Bordeaux (PRES University of Bordeaux): Bordeaux 1 · Segalen ·
Montaigne · Montesquieu · Pau/Adour

Caen: Caen

Clermont-Ferrand (PRES Clermont Université): Auvergne · Pascal

Corsica: Paoli

Créteil (PRES Université Paris-Est): Paris 8 · Paris 12 · Paris 13 ·
Marne la Vallée

Dijon: Burgundy

French Guiana: French West Indies/Guiana

French Polynesia: French Polynesia

Grenoble: Savoie · Fourier · Mendès-France · Stendhal

Lille (PRES Université Lille Nord de France): Artois · Sci/Tech Lille
I · Lille II · de Gaulle Lille III · Littoral · Valenciennes/Hainault-
Cambrésis

Limoges: Limoges

Lyon (PRES University of Lyon): Bernard · Lumière · Moulin · Monnet

Montpellier: Montpellier 1 · Montpellier 2 · Valéry · Unîmes ·
Perpignan

Nancy/Metz (PRES Nancy-Université): Verlaine · Poincaré · Nancy 2

Nantes (PRES Université Nantes Angers Le Mans ): Angers · Maine ·
Nantes

Nice: Nice · South

Orleans/Tours: Orléans · Rabelais

New Caledonia: New Caledonia

Paris (PRES Paris Universitas · PRES Paris Institute of Technology ·
PRES Paris Centre Universités): Panthéon-Sorbonne · Pantheon-Assas ·
New Sorbonne · Paris-Sorbonne · Descartes · Curie · Diderot

Poitiers: Poitiers · La Rochelle

Reims: Reims

Rennes (PRES Université européenne de Bretagne): Western Brittany ·
Southern Brittany · Rennes 1 · Upper Brittany

Réunion: Réunion

Rouen: Le Havre · Rouen

Saint-Dénis: Saint-Dénis-Vincennes Paris 8

Strasbourg: Strasbourg · Upper Alsace

Toulouse (PRES University of Toulouse): Toulouse 1 · Le Mirail ·
Sabatier · Champollion

Versailles (PRES UniverSud Paris · PRES de Cergy-Pontoise): Cergy-
Pontoise · Versailles · Évry · Nanterre · Paris-Sud


[edit] Public technical universities, institutes of technologies and
autonomous scientific higher education institutes
The Établissements publics à caractère scientifique, culturel et
professionnel (EPCSP) that are not listed as universities in the list
above operate as university-grade institutes.

Main articles: Établissement public à caractère scientifique, culturel
et professionnel and Grands établissements
Centrale Graduate School
École centrale de Lille
École centrale de Lyon
École centrale de Marseille
École centrale de Nantes
École centrale Paris
Collège de France
Conservatoire National des Arts et Métiers
École nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers
École nationale supérieure des arts et industries textiles
École Nationale des Chartes
École Normale Supérieure
École Normale Supérieure de Paris
École Normale Supérieure de Cachan
École Normale Supérieure de Lyon
École Normale Supérieure Lettres et Sciences Humaines
École des hautes études en sciences sociales
École pratique des hautes études
Institut national des sciences appliquées
Institut national des sciences appliquées de Lyon
Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Toulouse
Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Rennes
Institut national des sciences appliquées
Institut National des Sciences Appliquées de Rouen
Institut supérieur de mécanique de Paris
Institut national des langues et civilisations orientales
Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris
Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris
Institut Telecom
Universities of Technology
Université de technologie de Belfort-Montbéliard
University of Technology of Compiègne
University of Technology of Troyes
Grenoble Institute of Technology
Paris Dauphine University

[edit] Other higher education institutes
Other higher education institutes usually can not provide their own
degrees up to and including doctoral degree, so that there can not be
considered in the same category as those listed above. The extent of
their list is often subject to variations. They are however listed
hereafter for convenience.


[edit] Grandes écoles
Main article: Grandes Écoles

[edit] Art schools
Conservatoire de Paris
Conservatoire National Supérieur d'Art Dramatique
École des Beaux-Arts

[edit] Private universities
Center for Philosophical Studies
Independent Cooperative Faculty
Leonardo da Vinci University Center
Free Faculties of Philosophy and Psychology
Catholic universities
Catholic University of Paris
Catholic University of Toulouse
Catholic University of the West
Catholic University of Lyon
Catholic University of Lille
Catholic University for Higher Learning
Catholic University of Rennes
Protestant universities
Free Faculty of Reform Theology of Aix-en-Provence
Free Faculty of Protestant Theology of Montpellier
Free Faculty of Protestant Theology of Paris
Others
American University of Paris
Baruch College
École des Hautes Études Internationales, Paris
Centre d'Études Diplomatiques et Stratégiques, Paris

[edit] See also
List of public universities in France
Établissement public à caractère scientifique, culturel et
professionnel
Education in France
List of universities and colleges by country
Lists of universities and colleges

[edit] External links
Research and higher education institutions in France
Egide's list of French universities
French Universities,Study abroad in France
[show]v • d • eList of universities in Europe

Sovereign
states Albania · Andorra · Armenia1 · Austria · Azerbaijan2 · Belarus
· Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus1 ·
Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland · France · Georgia2 ·
Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Kazakhstan3 ·
Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Republic of
Macedonia · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands ·
Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia3 · San Marino · Serbia ·
Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey3 · Ukraine
· United Kingdom (England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales) ·
Vatican City


Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Abkhazia 2 · Adjara1 · Adygea · Akrotiri and
Dhekelia · Åland · Azores · Bashkortostan · Catalonia · Chechnya ·
Chuvashia · Crimea · Dagestan · Faroe Islands · Gagauzia · Gibraltar ·
Guernsey · Ingushetia · Jan Mayen · Jersey · Kabardino-Balkaria ·
Kalmykia · Karachay-Cherkessia · Republic of Karelia · Komi Republic ·
Kosovo · Madeira · Isle of Man · Mari El · Mordovia · Nagorno-
Karabakh1 · Nakhchivan1 · North Ossetia-Alania · Northern Cyprus1 ·
South Ossetia 2 · Svalbard · Tatarstan · Transnistria · Udmurtia ·
Vojvodina


Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1
Entirely in Asia, but historically considered European. 2 Partially
or entirely in Asia, depending on the border definitions. 3
Transcontinental country.


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_colleges_and_universities_in_France"
Categories: Lists of universities and colleges | Universities and
colleges in France | France-related lists
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mrliu918
2009-06-13 03:43:25 UTC
Permalink
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Germany

Wikipedia is sustained by people like you. Please donate today.List of
universities in Germany
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This is a list of the roundabout 70 universities in Germany. The list
also includes the 13 German "universities of technology" which have
official and full university status, but which usually focus on
education in the natural sciences rather than covering the whole
spectrum of academic disciplines.

However, the list does not cover institutions without full university
status, such as the German Fachhochschulen (Universities of applied
sciences) and institutions that cover only certain academic
disciplines such as business or fine arts, because those do not have
the same rights and responsibilities as full universities (e.g. they
cannot award doctorates).

Contents [hide]
1 Universities by years of existence
2 Universities alphabetically
2.1 A-D
2.2 E-H
2.3 I-N
2.4 O-Z
3 Universities by geographic region
3.1 North
3.2 West
3.3 East
3.4 South
4 Universities of Technology by location
5 References
6 See also
7 External links



[edit] Universities by years of existence

The University of Heidelberg is the oldest university in present
Germany.
The University of Greifswald is the smallest among the ancient
universities of Germany.This is a list of the ten oldest universities
in present Germany by count of the years of their existence.

Some other formerly German universities, for instance the Charles
University in Prague (now in the Czech Republic) are no longer on
German territory. Also, some universities were established in the 14th/
15th century, but shut down for longer periods and later re-opened
(e.g. the universities of Cologne, Erfurt or Würzburg). These are not
included in this list.

University Year of establishment Students Location
University of Heidelberg 1386 26,500 Heidelberg
University of Leipzig 1409 29,500 Leipzig
University of Rostock 1419 14,000 Rostock
University of Greifswald 1456 12,000 Greifswald
University of Freiburg 1457 20,500 Freiburg
University of Munich 1472 44,000 Munich
University of Mainz 1477 33,500 Mainz
University of Tübingen 1477 23,500 Tübingen
University of Marburg 1527 24,000 Marburg
University of Jena 1558 21,000 Jena


[edit] Universities alphabetically

[edit] A-D

Humboldt University of Berlin is the oldest university in Germany's
capital city, Berlin.University of Augsburg
University of Bamberg
University of Bayreuth
Free University of Berlin
Humboldt University of Berlin
University of Bielefeld
Ruhr University Bochum
University of Bonn
University of Bremen
Jacobs University Bremen
University of Cologne
University of Duisburg-Essen (Campus Duisburg)
University of Düsseldorf

[edit] E-H

Festive hall of the University of Göttingen.Catholic University of
Eichstätt-Ingolstadt
University of Erfurt
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
University of Duisburg-Essen (Campus Essen)
University of Flensburg
University of Frankfurt am Main
Viadrina University (Frankfurt an der Oder)
University of Freiburg
University of Giessen
University of Göttingen
University of Greifswald
Fernuniversität Hagen (distance learning; open university)
University of Halle-Wittenberg (also in Wittenberg)
University of Hamburg
Helmut Schmidt University (University of the Bundeswehr, Hamburg)
University of Hannover
University of Heidelberg
University of Hildesheim
University of Hohenheim

[edit] I-N

Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich is among the best-ranked
institutions of higher education in Germany.University of Jena
University of Karlsruhe
University of Kassel
University of Kiel
University of Koblenz
University of Konstanz
University of Leipzig
University of Lübeck
University of Lüneburg
University of Magdeburg
University of Mainz
University of Mannheim
University of Marburg
Ludwig Maximilians University of Munich
Universität der Bundeswehr München
University of Münster
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg

[edit] O-Z

University of TübingenUniversity of Oldenburg
University of Osnabrück
University of Passau
University of Paderborn
University of Potsdam
University of Regensburg
University of Rostock
Saarland University
University of Siegen
University of Stuttgart
University of Hohenheim (Stuttgart)
University of Trier
University of Tübingen
University of Ulm
University of Halle-Wittenberg (also in Halle)
University of Wuppertal
University of Würzburg

[edit] Universities by geographic region

[edit] North
University of Bremen
Jacobs University Bremen
University of Flensburg
University of Göttingen
University of Greifswald
University of Hamburg
Helmut Schmidt University (University of the Bundeswehr, Hamburg)
University of Hannover
University of Kiel
University of Lübeck
University of Lüneburg
University of Oldenburg
University of Osnabrück
University of Rostock
University of Vechta

[edit] West
University of Bielefeld
Ruhr University Bochum
University of Bonn
University of Cologne
University of Duisburg-Essen
University of Düsseldorf
University of Frankfurt am Main
University of Giessen
Fernuniversität Hagen (distance learning; open university)
University of Hildesheim
University of Hohenheim
University of Karlsruhe
University of Kassel
University of Koblenz
University of Mainz
University of Mannheim
University of Marburg
University of Münster
University of Paderborn
Saarland University
University of Trier
University of Siegen
University of Wuppertal

[edit] East
Free University of Berlin
Humboldt University of Berlin
University of Erfurt
Viadrina University (Frankfurt an der Oder)
University of Halle-Wittenberg
University of Jena
University of Leipzig
University of Magdeburg
University of Potsdam
University of Halle-Wittenberg (also in Halle)

[edit] South
University of Augsburg
University of Bamberg
University of Bayreuth
Catholic University of Eichstätt-Ingolstadt
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
University of Heidelberg
University of Konstanz
Universität der Bundeswehr München
University of Munich
University of Passau
University of Regensburg
University of Stuttgart
University of Hohenheim (Stuttgart)
University of Tübingen
University of Ulm
University of Würzburg

[edit] Universities of Technology by location

Dresden's University Library reading roomRWTH Aachen
Technical University of Berlin
Braunschweig University of Technology
Chemnitz University of Technology
Clausthal University of Technology
Brandenburg University of Technology
Darmstadt University of Technology
Dortmund University of Technology
Dresden University of Technology
Technische Universität Bergakademie Freiberg
Hamburg University of Technology
Ilmenau University of Technology
Kaiserslautern University of Technology
Technical University of Munich

[edit] References




[edit] See also
Education in Germany
List of oldest universities in continuous operation

[edit] External links
Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst (German Academic Exchange
Service)
www.study-in-germany.de
Higher Education Compass: complete list of German universities
krawumm.de (sortable directory of all German universities)
[show]v • d • eList of universities in Europe

Sovereign
states Albania · Andorra · Armenia1 · Austria · Azerbaijan2 · Belarus
· Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus1 ·
Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland · France · Georgia2 ·
Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Kazakhstan3 ·
Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Republic of
Macedonia · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands ·
Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia3 · San Marino · Serbia ·
Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey3 · Ukraine
· United Kingdom (England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales) ·
Vatican City


Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Abkhazia 2 · Adjara1 · Adygea · Akrotiri and
Dhekelia · Åland · Azores · Bashkortostan · Catalonia · Chechnya ·
Chuvashia · Crimea · Dagestan · Faroe Islands · Gagauzia · Gibraltar ·
Guernsey · Ingushetia · Jan Mayen · Jersey · Kabardino-Balkaria ·
Kalmykia · Karachay-Cherkessia · Republic of Karelia · Komi Republic ·
Kosovo · Madeira · Isle of Man · Mari El · Mordovia · Nagorno-
Karabakh1 · Nakhchivan1 · North Ossetia-Alania · Northern Cyprus1 ·
South Ossetia 2 · Svalbard · Tatarstan · Transnistria · Udmurtia ·
Vojvodina


Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1
Entirely in Asia, but historically considered European. 2 Partially
or entirely in Asia, depending on the border definitions. 3
Transcontinental country.


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_universities_in_Germany"
Categories: Education in Germany | Universities and colleges in
Germany | Lists of universities and colleges
ViewsArticle Discussion Edit this page History Personal toolsLog in /
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This page was last modified on 16 May 2009 at 19:29. All text is
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Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers
mrliu918
2009-06-13 03:55:29 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw


鷹爪行動
維基百科,自由的百科全書
跳轉到: 導航, 搜尋
鷹爪行動(英語:Operation Eagle Claw),是美國政府于1980年4月24日,為解救伊朗人質危機事件中被伊朗政府扣押的53名人
質而採取的一次軍事行動。此次行動最終以失敗告終,該行動的失敗也直接導致了美國特別行動指揮部(United States Special
Operations Command)和美國陸軍第160特種作戰航空團(160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment)的成立。

取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%B9%B0%E7%88%AA
%E8%A1%8C%E5%8A%A8&variant=zh-tw"
3個分類: 軍事行動 | 伊朗歷史 | 美國軍事

Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!Operation Eagle Claw
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Operation Eagle Claw

A left side view of six RH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters in flight. The
helicopters, based aboard the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS
Nimitz (CVN-68), are taking part in Operation Evening Light, a rescue
mission to Iran.
Date April 24 - April 25, 1980
Location Tehran, Iran
Result Failure (Unsuccessful hostage rescue attempt); mission aborted
with loss.

Belligerents
United States Iran
Commanders
Col. Charles Alvin Beckwith
Col. James Kyle
Lieutenant General William G. Boykin
Casualties and losses
8 KIA
4 WIA 1 civilian KIA
Operation Eagle Claw (or Operation Evening Light) was a United States
military operation which attempted to rescue the 52 hostages from the
U.S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran during April 24, 1980.

Jimmy Carter was determined to ensure the release of the hostages
during his presidency, particularly as the Democratic nomination for
the 1980 presidential election neared. However, it did not happen
despite extensive, last minute, diplomatic negotiations on Carter's
last day in office, January 20, 1981. After 444 days of captivity,
Iran released the hostages immediately after Ronald Reagan had taken
the oath of office.

Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 Aftermath
3 Units involved in the operation
4 See also
5 Fictional depictions
6 References
7 External links



[edit] Overview

The wreckage of a Sea Stallion helicopter at the Desert One base in
Iran.Planned by Joint Task Force (JTF) 1-79 as 'Operation Rice Bowl',
the operation was designed as a complex two-night mission. The first
stage of the mission involved establishing a small initial staging
site inside Iran itself, near Tabas in the Yazd Province (formerly in
the south of the Khorasan province) of Iran. The site, named Desert
One, was to be used as a temporary airstrip for the USAF special ops
MC-130E Combat Talon I penetration/transport aircraft and C-130
Hercules (later EC-130E) refueling aircraft, along with eight Navy
RH-53D Sea Stallion minesweeper helicopters flown in by Marine Corps
aircrews from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz stationed in the nearby
Indian Ocean.
After flying in under radar and landing at Desert One, the C-130
Hercules would off-load men and equipment and refuel the arriving
helicopters, which would undertake the actual rescue operation. After
refueling the helicopters at Desert One, the plan was for the ground
troops to board the helicopters and fly to Desert Two near Tehran the
same night where the helicopters would be concealed. The next night,
the rescuers would be transported to the embassy by assets in place
and overpower the hostage guards and extract the hostages across
Roosevelt Boulevard (the main road in front of the embassy) to a
soccer stadium, where the helicopters would land and retrieve the
entire force.

The assets in place were a Tehran CIA team led by Richard Meadows, who
were there for two purposes: (1) to obtain information about the
hostages and the embassy grounds, and (2) to transport the rescuers
from Desert Two to the embassy grounds with pre-staged vehicles. In
reality, the most important information came from an embassy cook who
was released by the Iranians and discovered on a flight from Tehran at
the last minute by another CIA officer, and who confirmed that the
hostages were centrally located in the embassy compound - this was a
key piece of information long sought after by the planners.

The assault on the embassy compound would occur after eliminating
electrical power in the area in order to disrupt military and civilian
capabilities, communications, and any counter-attacks attempted by the
Iranians. AC-130 gunships would also orbit overhead to provide
supporting fire against reacting forces. The helicopters would
transport the rescuers and hostages from the football stadium to
Manzariyeh Air Base outside of Tehran (34°58′58″N
50°48′20″E / 34.98278°N 50.80556°E / 34.98278; 50.80556), where a
Ranger force would have captured the airfield and C-141 transports
would be waiting to remove the entire contingent out of the country
under the protection of fighter aircraft.

However, only the delivery of the rescue force, equipment and fuel by
the C-130 Hercules occurred according to plan. An unexpected low-level
intense sandstorm of the kind known as a haboob contributed to the
reduction of the force by three of the eight RH-53D helicopters by the
time the helicopter formation reached Desert One, behind schedule. The
first helicopter was grounded and abandoned in the desert with
equipment indicating a cracked rotor blade, and its crew picked up by
another helicopter that continued the flight. The second helicopter
abandoned the flight and returned to the Nimitz with reported erratic
instrumentation blamed on the highly elevated temperatures inside the
haboob. The third helicopter arrived at Desert One with a
malfunctioning primary hydraulics system and insufficient confidence
in the secondary (backup) hydraulics system to continue. The first and
third helicopters, which were abandoned, now serve with the Iranian
Navy.

The C-130s carried the remaining forces back to the intermediate
airfield at Masirah Island where two C-141 medical evacuation aircraft
from the rear staging base at Wadi Abu Shihat, Egypt (referred to as
Wadi Kena by the US Forces due to its location near Qena) 26°33′18″N
33°07′58″E / 26.555058°N 33.132877°E / 26.555058; 33.132877 picked
up the injured personnel, helicopter crews, Rangers and Delta Force
members and returned to Wadi Kena. The injured personnel were then
transported to Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The Tehran CIA team
exfiltrated Iran, unaware that their presence had been compromised.


[edit] Aftermath

Operation Eagle Claw Memorial in Arlington National CemeteryThe White
House announced the failed rescue operation at 1 A.M. the following
day. The embassy hostages were scattered across Iran to make a second
rescue attempt impossible. Iranian Army investigators found 9 bodies,
8 Americans and 1 Iranian civilian (which was used to criticize the
White House’s announcement that “…there were no Iranian casualties…”).
The 44 Iranian civilians were interviewed and gave eye witness
accounts of the operation.

The failure of the various services to work together with cohesion
forced the establishment of a new multi-service organization. The
United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was established and
became operational on April 16, 1987. Each service now has its own
Special Operations Forces under the overall control of USSOCOM. For
example, the Army has its own Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)
that controls the Army Special Operations Forces (ARSOF). The Air
Force special ops unit that supplied the C-130 elements of the rescue
attempt was awarded the AF Outstanding Unit Award for both that year
and the next, was assigned its own squadron of HH-53H Pave Low (Super
Jolly) helicopters for long-range low-level night flying operations,
and became co-hosts at its home base of Hurlburt Field with the Air
Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC).

The lack of well-trained Army helicopter pilots that were capable of
the low-level night flying needed for modern special forces missions
prompted the creation of the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment (SOAR) (Night Stalkers).

A second rescue mission was planned under the name Operation Credible
Sport (a.k.a. Operation Honey Badger), but was never implemented. This
second rescue attempt was planned using modified YMC-130H Hercules
aircraft. Outfitted with rocket thrusters fore and aft to allow an
extremely short landing and take-off in a soccer stadium, three
aircraft were modified under a rushed secret program. One aircraft
crashed during a demonstration at Duke Field at Eglin Air Force Base
Auxiliary Field 3 on October 29, 1980, when its landing braking
rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that
tore off the starboard wing and started a fire. All on board survived.
The impending change in the White House caused to the abandonment of
this project. The two surviving airframes were returned to regular
duty with the rocket packages removed. One is now on display at the
Museum of Aviation located next to Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.[1]

Not long after the failure of the mission, on May 6, 1980, the Iranian
Embassy Siege occurred in London which ended in a successful assault
by the British Special Air Service (SAS).

As for the situation in Iran, the hostages were released after 444
days of captivity on January 20, 1981, the day that Ronald Reagan
succeeded Jimmy Carter as president.

Retired Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James L. Holloway III led
the official investigation in 1980 into the causes of the failure of
the operation on behalf of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Holloway
Report primarily cited deficiencies in mission planning, command and
control, and inter-service operability, and provided a catalyst to
reorganize the Department of Defense, and the Goldwater-Nichols Act of
1986.[2]

A memorial honoring the eight Americans who lost their lives during
the rescue attempt is located in the Arlington National Cemetery.


[edit] Units involved in the operation
These units are known to have participated:

USS Nimitz (CVN-68), Marine Detachment and Battle Group (USS
California (CGN-36), USS South Carolina (CGN-37) and USS Texas
(CGN-39))
USS Coral Sea (CV-43), Marine Detachment and Battle Group
1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (“Delta Force”),
including mission commander Col. Charlie Beckwith and subsequent
notables Maj. Peter Schoomaker (later Army Chief of Staff), Maj.
William G. Boykin (later Lt. Gen.), and MSG Eric L. Haney (later
Command Sergeant Major and author of Inside Delta Force)
75th Ranger Regiment
United States Army Special Forces
USS Okinawa (LPH-3), 31st M.E.U., 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines, and
HMM-165 (see numerous Navy and Marine Corps deployment reports)
USAF 1st Special Operations Wing, 8th and 16th Special Operations
Squadrons (AC-130/MC-130), USAF RED HORSE units, and numerous support
organizations
USAF Brand X (Early US Air Force Special Operations Command Combat
Control Team)
USAF 1st Combat Communication Group
Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FOURTEEN (RH-53D Sea
Stallions)

[edit] See also
Dust storm
V-22 Osprey

[edit] Fictional depictions
The Desert One phase of the operation is depicted in the 1986 film The
Delta Force. The sequence in the film shows the explosion of a Sea
Stallion helicopter and the subsequent rescue of an injured soldier by
a character played by Chuck Norris. The film also depicts the escape
from Desert One in a Hercules C-130 aircraft.

[edit] References
^ "The Hostage Rescue Attempt In Iran, April 24-25, 1980".
http://rescueattempt.tripod.com/id1.html. by James Bancroft. Accessed
31 March 2007.
^ "The Holloway Report" (PDF). http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB63/doc8.pdf.
Accessed 31 March 2007.
USAF College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education. Air &
Power Course: Operation Eagle Claw. United States of America: US Air
Force.
Kamps, Charles (2006). "Operation Eagle Claw: The Iran Hostage Rescue
Mission". Air & Space Power Journal.
http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/apjinternational/apj-s/2006/3tri06/kampseng.html.
Olausson, Lars, Lockheed Hercules Production List 1954-2005, Såtenäs,
Sweden, annually, no ISBN.
Kyle, Col. James H., USAF (Ret.) (1990). The Guts to Try. New York:
Orion Books. ISBN 0-517-57714-3.
Lenahan, Rod (1998). Crippled Eagle: A Historical Perspective Of U.S.
Special Operations 1976-1996. Narwhal Press. ISBN 1-886391-22-x.
Beckwith, Col. Charlie A., US Army (Ret.) (2000). Delta Force: The
Army's Elite Counter Terrorist Unit. Avon. ISBN 0-380-80939-7.
Haney, Eric (2002). Inside Delta Force: The Story Of America's Elite
Counter Terrorist Unit. Random House. ISBN 0-385-33603-9.
Bowden, Mark (May 2006). "The Desert One Debacle". The Atlantic
Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200605/iran-hostage.
Bowden, Mark (2006). Guests Of The Ayatollah: The First Battle In
America's War With Militant Islam. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN
0-87113-925-1.

[edit] External links
modern Warfare: Special Operations, Operation Eagle Claw – The first
part of a series of articles on Kuro5hin
Pictorial overview
Airman magazine – Interviews with surviving participants
The Holloway Report – The official DoD investigation into the
incident
THE FALLEN HEROES
Coordinates: 33°05′N 55°48′E / 33.083°N 55.8°E / 33.083; 55.8
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw"
Categories: Conflicts in 1980 | History of Iran | Military history of
the United States 1900-1999 | Operations involving American special
forces | Battles involving the United States | Battles involving Iran
| United States Army Rangers
ViewsArticle Discussion Edit this page History Personal toolsLog in /
create account Navigation
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This page was last modified on 11 June 2009 at 03:44. All text is
available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See
Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers
Chairman MaObama
2009-06-18 05:33:19 UTC
Permalink
Why don't you post something about Tianamen square 1989?


"mrliu918" <***@gmail.com> wrote in message news:51c685e8-1a4a-4ffe-92d3-***@d7g2000prl.googlegroups.com...
Quotation from wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw


鷹爪行動
維基百科,自由的百科全書
跳轉到: 導航, 搜尋
鷹爪行動(英語:Operation Eagle Claw),是美國政府于1980年4月24日,為解救伊朗人質危機事件中被伊朗政府扣押的53名人
質而採取的一次軍事行動。此次行動最終以失敗告終,該行動的失敗也直接導致了美國特別行動指揮部(United States Special
Operations Command)和美國陸軍第160特種作戰航空團(160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment)的成立。

取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%B9%B0%E7%88%AA
%E8%A1%8C%E5%8A%A8&variant=zh-tw"
3個分類: 軍事行動 | 伊朗歷史 | 美國軍事

Your continued donations keep Wikipedia running!Operation Eagle Claw
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Operation Eagle Claw

A left side view of six RH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters in flight. The
helicopters, based aboard the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS
Nimitz (CVN-68), are taking part in Operation Evening Light, a rescue
mission to Iran.
Date April 24 - April 25, 1980
Location Tehran, Iran
Result Failure (Unsuccessful hostage rescue attempt); mission aborted
with loss.

Belligerents
United States Iran
Commanders
Col. Charles Alvin Beckwith
Col. James Kyle
Lieutenant General William G. Boykin
Casualties and losses
8 KIA
4 WIA 1 civilian KIA
Operation Eagle Claw (or Operation Evening Light) was a United States
military operation which attempted to rescue the 52 hostages from the
U.S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran during April 24, 1980.

Jimmy Carter was determined to ensure the release of the hostages
during his presidency, particularly as the Democratic nomination for
the 1980 presidential election neared. However, it did not happen
despite extensive, last minute, diplomatic negotiations on Carter's
last day in office, January 20, 1981. After 444 days of captivity,
Iran released the hostages immediately after Ronald Reagan had taken
the oath of office.

Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 Aftermath
3 Units involved in the operation
4 See also
5 Fictional depictions
6 References
7 External links



[edit] Overview

The wreckage of a Sea Stallion helicopter at the Desert One base in
Iran.Planned by Joint Task Force (JTF) 1-79 as 'Operation Rice Bowl',
the operation was designed as a complex two-night mission. The first
stage of the mission involved establishing a small initial staging
site inside Iran itself, near Tabas in the Yazd Province (formerly in
the south of the Khorasan province) of Iran. The site, named Desert
One, was to be used as a temporary airstrip for the USAF special ops
MC-130E Combat Talon I penetration/transport aircraft and C-130
Hercules (later EC-130E) refueling aircraft, along with eight Navy
RH-53D Sea Stallion minesweeper helicopters flown in by Marine Corps
aircrews from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz stationed in the nearby
Indian Ocean.
After flying in under radar and landing at Desert One, the C-130
Hercules would off-load men and equipment and refuel the arriving
helicopters, which would undertake the actual rescue operation. After
refueling the helicopters at Desert One, the plan was for the ground
troops to board the helicopters and fly to Desert Two near Tehran the
same night where the helicopters would be concealed. The next night,
the rescuers would be transported to the embassy by assets in place
and overpower the hostage guards and extract the hostages across
Roosevelt Boulevard (the main road in front of the embassy) to a
soccer stadium, where the helicopters would land and retrieve the
entire force.

The assets in place were a Tehran CIA team led by Richard Meadows, who
were there for two purposes: (1) to obtain information about the
hostages and the embassy grounds, and (2) to transport the rescuers
from Desert Two to the embassy grounds with pre-staged vehicles. In
reality, the most important information came from an embassy cook who
was released by the Iranians and discovered on a flight from Tehran at
the last minute by another CIA officer, and who confirmed that the
hostages were centrally located in the embassy compound - this was a
key piece of information long sought after by the planners.

The assault on the embassy compound would occur after eliminating
electrical power in the area in order to disrupt military and civilian
capabilities, communications, and any counter-attacks attempted by the
Iranians. AC-130 gunships would also orbit overhead to provide
supporting fire against reacting forces. The helicopters would
transport the rescuers and hostages from the football stadium to
Manzariyeh Air Base outside of Tehran (34°58′58″N
50°48′20″E / 34.98278°N 50.80556°E / 34.98278; 50.80556), where a
Ranger force would have captured the airfield and C-141 transports
would be waiting to remove the entire contingent out of the country
under the protection of fighter aircraft.

However, only the delivery of the rescue force, equipment and fuel by
the C-130 Hercules occurred according to plan. An unexpected low-level
intense sandstorm of the kind known as a haboob contributed to the
reduction of the force by three of the eight RH-53D helicopters by the
time the helicopter formation reached Desert One, behind schedule. The
first helicopter was grounded and abandoned in the desert with
equipment indicating a cracked rotor blade, and its crew picked up by
another helicopter that continued the flight. The second helicopter
abandoned the flight and returned to the Nimitz with reported erratic
instrumentation blamed on the highly elevated temperatures inside the
haboob. The third helicopter arrived at Desert One with a
malfunctioning primary hydraulics system and insufficient confidence
in the secondary (backup) hydraulics system to continue. The first and
third helicopters, which were abandoned, now serve with the Iranian
Navy.

The C-130s carried the remaining forces back to the intermediate
airfield at Masirah Island where two C-141 medical evacuation aircraft
from the rear staging base at Wadi Abu Shihat, Egypt (referred to as
Wadi Kena by the US Forces due to its location near Qena) 26°33′18″N
33°07′58″E / 26.555058°N 33.132877°E / 26.555058; 33.132877 picked
up the injured personnel, helicopter crews, Rangers and Delta Force
members and returned to Wadi Kena. The injured personnel were then
transported to Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The Tehran CIA team
exfiltrated Iran, unaware that their presence had been compromised.


[edit] Aftermath

Operation Eagle Claw Memorial in Arlington National CemeteryThe White
House announced the failed rescue operation at 1 A.M. the following
day. The embassy hostages were scattered across Iran to make a second
rescue attempt impossible. Iranian Army investigators found 9 bodies,
8 Americans and 1 Iranian civilian (which was used to criticize the
White House’s announcement that “…there were no Iranian casualties…”).
The 44 Iranian civilians were interviewed and gave eye witness
accounts of the operation.

The failure of the various services to work together with cohesion
forced the establishment of a new multi-service organization. The
United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was established and
became operational on April 16, 1987. Each service now has its own
Special Operations Forces under the overall control of USSOCOM. For
example, the Army has its own Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)
that controls the Army Special Operations Forces (ARSOF). The Air
Force special ops unit that supplied the C-130 elements of the rescue
attempt was awarded the AF Outstanding Unit Award for both that year
and the next, was assigned its own squadron of HH-53H Pave Low (Super
Jolly) helicopters for long-range low-level night flying operations,
and became co-hosts at its home base of Hurlburt Field with the Air
Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC).

The lack of well-trained Army helicopter pilots that were capable of
the low-level night flying needed for modern special forces missions
prompted the creation of the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment (SOAR) (Night Stalkers).

A second rescue mission was planned under the name Operation Credible
Sport (a.k.a. Operation Honey Badger), but was never implemented. This
second rescue attempt was planned using modified YMC-130H Hercules
aircraft. Outfitted with rocket thrusters fore and aft to allow an
extremely short landing and take-off in a soccer stadium, three
aircraft were modified under a rushed secret program. One aircraft
crashed during a demonstration at Duke Field at Eglin Air Force Base
Auxiliary Field 3 on October 29, 1980, when its landing braking
rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that
tore off the starboard wing and started a fire. All on board survived.
The impending change in the White House caused to the abandonment of
this project. The two surviving airframes were returned to regular
duty with the rocket packages removed. One is now on display at the
Museum of Aviation located next to Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.[1]

Not long after the failure of the mission, on May 6, 1980, the Iranian
Embassy Siege occurred in London which ended in a successful assault
by the British Special Air Service (SAS).

As for the situation in Iran, the hostages were released after 444
days of captivity on January 20, 1981, the day that Ronald Reagan
succeeded Jimmy Carter as president.

Retired Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James L. Holloway III led
the official investigation in 1980 into the causes of the failure of
the operation on behalf of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Holloway
Report primarily cited deficiencies in mission planning, command and
control, and inter-service operability, and provided a catalyst to
reorganize the Department of Defense, and the Goldwater-Nichols Act of
1986.[2]

A memorial honoring the eight Americans who lost their lives during
the rescue attempt is located in the Arlington National Cemetery.


[edit] Units involved in the operation
These units are known to have participated:

USS Nimitz (CVN-68), Marine Detachment and Battle Group (USS
California (CGN-36), USS South Carolina (CGN-37) and USS Texas
(CGN-39))
USS Coral Sea (CV-43), Marine Detachment and Battle Group
1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (“Delta Force”),
including mission commander Col. Charlie Beckwith and subsequent
notables Maj. Peter Schoomaker (later Army Chief of Staff), Maj.
William G. Boykin (later Lt. Gen.), and MSG Eric L. Haney (later
Command Sergeant Major and author of Inside Delta Force)
75th Ranger Regiment
United States Army Special Forces
USS Okinawa (LPH-3), 31st M.E.U., 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines, and
HMM-165 (see numerous Navy and Marine Corps deployment reports)
USAF 1st Special Operations Wing, 8th and 16th Special Operations
Squadrons (AC-130/MC-130), USAF RED HORSE units, and numerous support
organizations
USAF Brand X (Early US Air Force Special Operations Command Combat
Control Team)
USAF 1st Combat Communication Group
Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FOURTEEN (RH-53D Sea
Stallions)

[edit] See also
Dust storm
V-22 Osprey

[edit] Fictional depictions
The Desert One phase of the operation is depicted in the 1986 film The
Delta Force. The sequence in the film shows the explosion of a Sea
Stallion helicopter and the subsequent rescue of an injured soldier by
a character played by Chuck Norris. The film also depicts the escape
from Desert One in a Hercules C-130 aircraft.

[edit] References
^ "The Hostage Rescue Attempt In Iran, April 24-25, 1980".
http://rescueattempt.tripod.com/id1.html. by James Bancroft. Accessed
31 March 2007.
^ "The Holloway Report" (PDF).
http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB63/doc8.pdf.
Accessed 31 March 2007.
USAF College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education. Air &
Power Course: Operation Eagle Claw. United States of America: US Air
Force.
Kamps, Charles (2006). "Operation Eagle Claw: The Iran Hostage Rescue
Mission". Air & Space Power Journal.
http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/apjinternational/apj-s/2006/3tri06/kampseng.html.
Olausson, Lars, Lockheed Hercules Production List 1954-2005, Såtenäs,
Sweden, annually, no ISBN.
Kyle, Col. James H., USAF (Ret.) (1990). The Guts to Try. New York:
Orion Books. ISBN 0-517-57714-3.
Lenahan, Rod (1998). Crippled Eagle: A Historical Perspective Of U.S.
Special Operations 1976-1996. Narwhal Press. ISBN 1-886391-22-x.
Beckwith, Col. Charlie A., US Army (Ret.) (2000). Delta Force: The
Army's Elite Counter Terrorist Unit. Avon. ISBN 0-380-80939-7.
Haney, Eric (2002). Inside Delta Force: The Story Of America's Elite
Counter Terrorist Unit. Random House. ISBN 0-385-33603-9.
Bowden, Mark (May 2006). "The Desert One Debacle". The Atlantic
Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200605/iran-hostage.
Bowden, Mark (2006). Guests Of The Ayatollah: The First Battle In
America's War With Militant Islam. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN
0-87113-925-1.

[edit] External links
modern Warfare: Special Operations, Operation Eagle Claw – The first
part of a series of articles on Kuro5hin
Pictorial overview
Airman magazine – Interviews with surviving participants
The Holloway Report – The official DoD investigation into the
incident
THE FALLEN HEROES
Coordinates: 33°05′N 55°48′E / 33.083°N 55.8°E / 33.083; 55.8
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw"
Categories: Conflicts in 1980 | History of Iran | Military history of
the United States 1900-1999 | Operations involving American special
forces | Battles involving the United States | Battles involving Iran
| United States Army Rangers
ViewsArticle Discussion Edit this page History Personal toolsLog in /
create account Navigation
Main page
Contents
Featured content
Current events
Random article
Search
Interaction
About Wikipedia
Community portal
Recent changes
Contact Wikipedia
Donate to Wikipedia
Help
Toolbox
What links here
Related changes
Upload file
Special pages
Printable version
Permanent link
Cite this page
Languages
Deutsch
فارسی
Français
Italiano
עברית
Magyar
日本語
Polski
Română
Русский
Slovenščina
Српски / Srpski
中文

This page was last modified on 11 June 2009 at 03:44. All text is
available under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License. (See
Copyrights for details.)
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a U.S. registered 501(c)(3) tax-deductible nonprofit charity.
Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers
mrliu918
2009-06-13 03:58:29 UTC
Permalink
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw

鷹爪行動
維基百科,自由的百科全書
跳轉到: 導航, 搜尋
鷹爪行動(英語:Operation Eagle Claw),是美國政府于1980年4月24日,為解救伊朗人質危機事件中被伊朗政府扣押的53名人
質而採取的一次軍事行動。此次行動最終以失敗告終,該行動的失敗也直接導致了美國特別行動指揮部(United States Special
Operations Command)和美國陸軍第160特種作戰航空團(160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment)的成立。

取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%B9%B0%E7%88%AA
%E8%A1%8C%E5%8A%A8&variant=zh-tw"
3個分類: 軍事行動 | 伊朗歷史 | 美國軍事

Operation Eagle Claw
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Operation Eagle Claw

A left side view of six RH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters in flight. The
helicopters, based aboard the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS
Nimitz (CVN-68), are taking part in Operation Evening Light, a rescue
mission to Iran.
Date April 24 - April 25, 1980
Location Tehran, Iran
Result Failure (Unsuccessful hostage rescue attempt); mission aborted
with loss.

Belligerents
United States Iran
Commanders
Col. Charles Alvin Beckwith
Col. James Kyle
Lieutenant General William G. Boykin
Casualties and losses
8 KIA
4 WIA 1 civilian KIA
Operation Eagle Claw (or Operation Evening Light) was a United States
military operation which attempted to rescue the 52 hostages from the
U.S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran during April 24, 1980.

Jimmy Carter was determined to ensure the release of the hostages
during his presidency, particularly as the Democratic nomination for
the 1980 presidential election neared. However, it did not happen
despite extensive, last minute, diplomatic negotiations on Carter's
last day in office, January 20, 1981. After 444 days of captivity,
Iran released the hostages immediately after Ronald Reagan had taken
the oath of office.

Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 Aftermath
3 Units involved in the operation
4 See also
5 Fictional depictions
6 References
7 External links



[edit] Overview

The wreckage of a Sea Stallion helicopter at the Desert One base in
Iran.Planned by Joint Task Force (JTF) 1-79 as 'Operation Rice Bowl',
the operation was designed as a complex two-night mission. The first
stage of the mission involved establishing a small initial staging
site inside Iran itself, near Tabas in the Yazd Province (formerly in
the south of the Khorasan province) of Iran. The site, named Desert
One, was to be used as a temporary airstrip for the USAF special ops
MC-130E Combat Talon I penetration/transport aircraft and C-130
Hercules (later EC-130E) refueling aircraft, along with eight Navy
RH-53D Sea Stallion minesweeper helicopters flown in by Marine Corps
aircrews from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz stationed in the nearby
Indian Ocean.
After flying in under radar and landing at Desert One, the C-130
Hercules would off-load men and equipment and refuel the arriving
helicopters, which would undertake the actual rescue operation. After
refueling the helicopters at Desert One, the plan was for the ground
troops to board the helicopters and fly to Desert Two near Tehran the
same night where the helicopters would be concealed. The next night,
the rescuers would be transported to the embassy by assets in place
and overpower the hostage guards and extract the hostages across
Roosevelt Boulevard (the main road in front of the embassy) to a
soccer stadium, where the helicopters would land and retrieve the
entire force.

The assets in place were a Tehran CIA team led by Richard Meadows, who
were there for two purposes: (1) to obtain information about the
hostages and the embassy grounds, and (2) to transport the rescuers
from Desert Two to the embassy grounds with pre-staged vehicles. In
reality, the most important information came from an embassy cook who
was released by the Iranians and discovered on a flight from Tehran at
the last minute by another CIA officer, and who confirmed that the
hostages were centrally located in the embassy compound - this was a
key piece of information long sought after by the planners.

The assault on the embassy compound would occur after eliminating
electrical power in the area in order to disrupt military and civilian
capabilities, communications, and any counter-attacks attempted by the
Iranians. AC-130 gunships would also orbit overhead to provide
supporting fire against reacting forces. The helicopters would
transport the rescuers and hostages from the football stadium to
Manzariyeh Air Base outside of Tehran (34°58′58″N
50°48′20″E / 34.98278°N 50.80556°E / 34.98278; 50.80556), where a
Ranger force would have captured the airfield and C-141 transports
would be waiting to remove the entire contingent out of the country
under the protection of fighter aircraft.

However, only the delivery of the rescue force, equipment and fuel by
the C-130 Hercules occurred according to plan. An unexpected low-level
intense sandstorm of the kind known as a haboob contributed to the
reduction of the force by three of the eight RH-53D helicopters by the
time the helicopter formation reached Desert One, behind schedule. The
first helicopter was grounded and abandoned in the desert with
equipment indicating a cracked rotor blade, and its crew picked up by
another helicopter that continued the flight. The second helicopter
abandoned the flight and returned to the Nimitz with reported erratic
instrumentation blamed on the highly elevated temperatures inside the
haboob. The third helicopter arrived at Desert One with a
malfunctioning primary hydraulics system and insufficient confidence
in the secondary (backup) hydraulics system to continue. The first and
third helicopters, which were abandoned, now serve with the Iranian
Navy.

The C-130s carried the remaining forces back to the intermediate
airfield at Masirah Island where two C-141 medical evacuation aircraft
from the rear staging base at Wadi Abu Shihat, Egypt (referred to as
Wadi Kena by the US Forces due to its location near Qena) 26°33′18″N
33°07′58″E / 26.555058°N 33.132877°E / 26.555058; 33.132877 picked
up the injured personnel, helicopter crews, Rangers and Delta Force
members and returned to Wadi Kena. The injured personnel were then
transported to Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The Tehran CIA team
exfiltrated Iran, unaware that their presence had been compromised.


[edit] Aftermath

Operation Eagle Claw Memorial in Arlington National CemeteryThe White
House announced the failed rescue operation at 1 A.M. the following
day. The embassy hostages were scattered across Iran to make a second
rescue attempt impossible. Iranian Army investigators found 9 bodies,
8 Americans and 1 Iranian civilian (which was used to criticize the
White House’s announcement that “…there were no Iranian casualties…”).
The 44 Iranian civilians were interviewed and gave eye witness
accounts of the operation.

The failure of the various services to work together with cohesion
forced the establishment of a new multi-service organization. The
United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was established and
became operational on April 16, 1987. Each service now has its own
Special Operations Forces under the overall control of USSOCOM. For
example, the Army has its own Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)
that controls the Army Special Operations Forces (ARSOF). The Air
Force special ops unit that supplied the C-130 elements of the rescue
attempt was awarded the AF Outstanding Unit Award for both that year
and the next, was assigned its own squadron of HH-53H Pave Low (Super
Jolly) helicopters for long-range low-level night flying operations,
and became co-hosts at its home base of Hurlburt Field with the Air
Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC).

The lack of well-trained Army helicopter pilots that were capable of
the low-level night flying needed for modern special forces missions
prompted the creation of the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment (SOAR) (Night Stalkers).

A second rescue mission was planned under the name Operation Credible
Sport (a.k.a. Operation Honey Badger), but was never implemented. This
second rescue attempt was planned using modified YMC-130H Hercules
aircraft. Outfitted with rocket thrusters fore and aft to allow an
extremely short landing and take-off in a soccer stadium, three
aircraft were modified under a rushed secret program. One aircraft
crashed during a demonstration at Duke Field at Eglin Air Force Base
Auxiliary Field 3 on October 29, 1980, when its landing braking
rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that
tore off the starboard wing and started a fire. All on board survived.
The impending change in the White House caused to the abandonment of
this project. The two surviving airframes were returned to regular
duty with the rocket packages removed. One is now on display at the
Museum of Aviation located next to Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.[1]

Not long after the failure of the mission, on May 6, 1980, the Iranian
Embassy Siege occurred in London which ended in a successful assault
by the British Special Air Service (SAS).

As for the situation in Iran, the hostages were released after 444
days of captivity on January 20, 1981, the day that Ronald Reagan
succeeded Jimmy Carter as president.

Retired Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James L. Holloway III led
the official investigation in 1980 into the causes of the failure of
the operation on behalf of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Holloway
Report primarily cited deficiencies in mission planning, command and
control, and inter-service operability, and provided a catalyst to
reorganize the Department of Defense, and the Goldwater-Nichols Act of
1986.[2]

A memorial honoring the eight Americans who lost their lives during
the rescue attempt is located in the Arlington National Cemetery.


[edit] Units involved in the operation
These units are known to have participated:

USS Nimitz (CVN-68), Marine Detachment and Battle Group (USS
California (CGN-36), USS South Carolina (CGN-37) and USS Texas
(CGN-39))
USS Coral Sea (CV-43), Marine Detachment and Battle Group
1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (“Delta Force”),
including mission commander Col. Charlie Beckwith and subsequent
notables Maj. Peter Schoomaker (later Army Chief of Staff), Maj.
William G. Boykin (later Lt. Gen.), and MSG Eric L. Haney (later
Command Sergeant Major and author of Inside Delta Force)
75th Ranger Regiment
United States Army Special Forces
USS Okinawa (LPH-3), 31st M.E.U., 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines, and
HMM-165 (see numerous Navy and Marine Corps deployment reports)
USAF 1st Special Operations Wing, 8th and 16th Special Operations
Squadrons (AC-130/MC-130), USAF RED HORSE units, and numerous support
organizations
USAF Brand X (Early US Air Force Special Operations Command Combat
Control Team)
USAF 1st Combat Communication Group
Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FOURTEEN (RH-53D Sea
Stallions)

[edit] See also
Dust storm
V-22 Osprey

[edit] Fictional depictions
The Desert One phase of the operation is depicted in the 1986 film The
Delta Force. The sequence in the film shows the explosion of a Sea
Stallion helicopter and the subsequent rescue of an injured soldier by
a character played by Chuck Norris. The film also depicts the escape
from Desert One in a Hercules C-130 aircraft.

[edit] References
^ "The Hostage Rescue Attempt In Iran, April 24-25, 1980".
http://rescueattempt.tripod.com/id1.html. by James Bancroft. Accessed
31 March 2007.
^ "The Holloway Report" (PDF). http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB63/doc8.pdf.
Accessed 31 March 2007.
USAF College of Aerospace Doctrine, Research and Education. Air &
Power Course: Operation Eagle Claw. United States of America: US Air
Force.
Kamps, Charles (2006). "Operation Eagle Claw: The Iran Hostage Rescue
Mission". Air & Space Power Journal.
http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/apjinternational/apj-s/2006/3tri06/kampseng.html.
Olausson, Lars, Lockheed Hercules Production List 1954-2005, Såtenäs,
Sweden, annually, no ISBN.
Kyle, Col. James H., USAF (Ret.) (1990). The Guts to Try. New York:
Orion Books. ISBN 0-517-57714-3.
Lenahan, Rod (1998). Crippled Eagle: A Historical Perspective Of U.S.
Special Operations 1976-1996. Narwhal Press. ISBN 1-886391-22-x.
Beckwith, Col. Charlie A., US Army (Ret.) (2000). Delta Force: The
Army's Elite Counter Terrorist Unit. Avon. ISBN 0-380-80939-7.
Haney, Eric (2002). Inside Delta Force: The Story Of America's Elite
Counter Terrorist Unit. Random House. ISBN 0-385-33603-9.
Bowden, Mark (May 2006). "The Desert One Debacle". The Atlantic
Monthly. http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/200605/iran-hostage.
Bowden, Mark (2006). Guests Of The Ayatollah: The First Battle In
America's War With Militant Islam. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN
0-87113-925-1.

[edit] External links
modern Warfare: Special Operations, Operation Eagle Claw – The first
part of a series of articles on Kuro5hin
Pictorial overview
Airman magazine – Interviews with surviving participants
The Holloway Report – The official DoD investigation into the
incident
THE FALLEN HEROES
mrliu918
2009-06-13 04:00:50 UTC
Permalink
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Eagle_Claw

鷹爪行動
維基百科,自由的百科全書
跳轉到: 導航, 搜尋
鷹爪行動(英語:Operation Eagle Claw),是美國政府于1980年4月24日,為解救伊朗人質危機事件中被伊朗政府扣押的53名人
質而採取的一次軍事行動。此次行動最終以失敗告終,該行動的失敗也直接導致了美國特別行動指揮部(United States Special
Operations Command)和美國陸軍第160特種作戰航空團(160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment)的成立。

取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%B9%B0%E7%88%AA
%E8%A1%8C%E5%8A%A8&variant=zh-tw"
3個分類: 軍事行動 | 伊朗歷史 | 美國軍事

Operation Eagle Claw
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Operation Eagle Claw

A left side view of six RH-53D Sea Stallion helicopters in flight. The
helicopters, based aboard the nuclear-powered aircraft carrier USS
Nimitz (CVN-68), are taking part in Operation Evening Light, a rescue
mission to Iran.
Date April 24 - April 25, 1980
Location Tehran, Iran
Result Failure (Unsuccessful hostage rescue attempt); mission aborted
with loss.

Belligerents
United States Iran
Commanders
Col. Charles Alvin Beckwith
Col. James Kyle
Lieutenant General William G. Boykin
Casualties and losses
8 KIA
4 WIA 1 civilian KIA
Operation Eagle Claw (or Operation Evening Light) was a United States
military operation which attempted to rescue the 52 hostages from the
U.S. Embassy in Tehran, Iran during April 24, 1980.

Jimmy Carter was determined to ensure the release of the hostages
during his presidency, particularly as the Democratic nomination for
the 1980 presidential election neared. However, it did not happen
despite extensive, last minute, diplomatic negotiations on Carter's
last day in office, January 20, 1981. After 444 days of captivity,
Iran released the hostages immediately after Ronald Reagan had taken
the oath of office.

Contents [hide]
1 Overview
2 Aftermath
3 Units involved in the operation
4 See also
5 Fictional depictions
6 References
7 External links



[edit] Overview

The wreckage of a Sea Stallion helicopter at the Desert One base in
Iran.Planned by Joint Task Force (JTF) 1-79 as 'Operation Rice Bowl',
the operation was designed as a complex two-night mission. The first
stage of the mission involved establishing a small initial staging
site inside Iran itself, near Tabas in the Yazd Province (formerly in
the south of the Khorasan province) of Iran. The site, named Desert
One, was to be used as a temporary airstrip for the USAF special ops
MC-130E Combat Talon I penetration/transport aircraft and C-130
Hercules (later EC-130E) refueling aircraft, along with eight Navy
RH-53D Sea Stallion minesweeper helicopters flown in by Marine Corps
aircrews from the aircraft carrier USS Nimitz stationed in the nearby
Indian Ocean.
After flying in under radar and landing at Desert One, the C-130
Hercules would off-load men and equipment and refuel the arriving
helicopters, which would undertake the actual rescue operation. After
refueling the helicopters at Desert One, the plan was for the ground
troops to board the helicopters and fly to Desert Two near Tehran the
same night where the helicopters would be concealed. The next night,
the rescuers would be transported to the embassy by assets in place
and overpower the hostage guards and extract the hostages across
Roosevelt Boulevard (the main road in front of the embassy) to a
soccer stadium, where the helicopters would land and retrieve the
entire force.

The assets in place were a Tehran CIA team led by Richard Meadows, who
were there for two purposes: (1) to obtain information about the
hostages and the embassy grounds, and (2) to transport the rescuers
from Desert Two to the embassy grounds with pre-staged vehicles. In
reality, the most important information came from an embassy cook who
was released by the Iranians and discovered on a flight from Tehran at
the last minute by another CIA officer, and who confirmed that the
hostages were centrally located in the embassy compound - this was a
key piece of information long sought after by the planners.

The assault on the embassy compound would occur after eliminating
electrical power in the area in order to disrupt military and civilian
capabilities, communications, and any counter-attacks attempted by the
Iranians. AC-130 gunships would also orbit overhead to provide
supporting fire against reacting forces. The helicopters would
transport the rescuers and hostages from the football stadium to
Manzariyeh Air Base outside of Tehran (34°58′58″N
50°48′20″E / 34.98278°N 50.80556°E / 34.98278; 50.80556), where a
Ranger force would have captured the airfield and C-141 transports
would be waiting to remove the entire contingent out of the country
under the protection of fighter aircraft.

However, only the delivery of the rescue force, equipment and fuel by
the C-130 Hercules occurred according to plan. An unexpected low-level
intense sandstorm of the kind known as a haboob contributed to the
reduction of the force by three of the eight RH-53D helicopters by the
time the helicopter formation reached Desert One, behind schedule. The
first helicopter was grounded and abandoned in the desert with
equipment indicating a cracked rotor blade, and its crew picked up by
another helicopter that continued the flight. The second helicopter
abandoned the flight and returned to the Nimitz with reported erratic
instrumentation blamed on the highly elevated temperatures inside the
haboob. The third helicopter arrived at Desert One with a
malfunctioning primary hydraulics system and insufficient confidence
in the secondary (backup) hydraulics system to continue. The first and
third helicopters, which were abandoned, now serve with the Iranian
Navy.

The C-130s carried the remaining forces back to the intermediate
airfield at Masirah Island where two C-141 medical evacuation aircraft
from the rear staging base at Wadi Abu Shihat, Egypt (referred to as
Wadi Kena by the US Forces due to its location near Qena) 26°33′18″N
33°07′58″E / 26.555058°N 33.132877°E / 26.555058; 33.132877 picked
up the injured personnel, helicopter crews, Rangers and Delta Force
members and returned to Wadi Kena. The injured personnel were then
transported to Ramstein Air Base, Germany. The Tehran CIA team
exfiltrated Iran, unaware that their presence had been compromised.


[edit] Aftermath

Operation Eagle Claw Memorial in Arlington National CemeteryThe White
House announced the failed rescue operation at 1 A.M. the following
day. The embassy hostages were scattered across Iran to make a second
rescue attempt impossible. Iranian Army investigators found 9 bodies,
8 Americans and 1 Iranian civilian (which was used to criticize the
White House’s announcement that “…there were no Iranian casualties…”).
The 44 Iranian civilians were interviewed and gave eye witness
accounts of the operation.

The failure of the various services to work together with cohesion
forced the establishment of a new multi-service organization. The
United States Special Operations Command (USSOCOM) was established and
became operational on April 16, 1987. Each service now has its own
Special Operations Forces under the overall control of USSOCOM. For
example, the Army has its own Army Special Operations Command (USASOC)
that controls the Army Special Operations Forces (ARSOF). The Air
Force special ops unit that supplied the C-130 elements of the rescue
attempt was awarded the AF Outstanding Unit Award for both that year
and the next, was assigned its own squadron of HH-53H Pave Low (Super
Jolly) helicopters for long-range low-level night flying operations,
and became co-hosts at its home base of Hurlburt Field with the Air
Force Special Operations Command (AFSOC).

The lack of well-trained Army helicopter pilots that were capable of
the low-level night flying needed for modern special forces missions
prompted the creation of the 160th Special Operations Aviation
Regiment (SOAR) (Night Stalkers).

A second rescue mission was planned under the name Operation Credible
Sport (a.k.a. Operation Honey Badger), but was never implemented. This
second rescue attempt was planned using modified YMC-130H Hercules
aircraft. Outfitted with rocket thrusters fore and aft to allow an
extremely short landing and take-off in a soccer stadium, three
aircraft were modified under a rushed secret program. One aircraft
crashed during a demonstration at Duke Field at Eglin Air Force Base
Auxiliary Field 3 on October 29, 1980, when its landing braking
rockets were fired too soon. The misfire caused a hard touchdown that
tore off the starboard wing and started a fire. All on board survived.
The impending change in the White House caused to the abandonment of
this project. The two surviving airframes were returned to regular
duty with the rocket packages removed. One is now on display at the
Museum of Aviation located next to Robins Air Force Base, Georgia.[1]

Not long after the failure of the mission, on May 6, 1980, the Iranian
Embassy Siege occurred in London which ended in a successful assault
by the British Special Air Service (SAS).

As for the situation in Iran, the hostages were released after 444
days of captivity on January 20, 1981, the day that Ronald Reagan
succeeded Jimmy Carter as president.

Retired Chief of Naval Operations Admiral James L. Holloway III led
the official investigation in 1980 into the causes of the failure of
the operation on behalf of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. The Holloway
Report primarily cited deficiencies in mission planning, command and
control, and inter-service operability, and provided a catalyst to
reorganize the Department of Defense, and the Goldwater-Nichols Act of
1986.[2]

A memorial honoring the eight Americans who lost their lives during
the rescue attempt is located in the Arlington National Cemetery.


[edit] Units involved in the operation
These units are known to have participated:

USS Nimitz (CVN-68), Marine Detachment and Battle Group (USS
California (CGN-36), USS South Carolina (CGN-37) and USS Texas
(CGN-39))
USS Coral Sea (CV-43), Marine Detachment and Battle Group
1st Special Forces Operational Detachment-Delta (“Delta Force”),
including mission commander Col. Charlie Beckwith and subsequent
notables Maj. Peter Schoomaker (later Army Chief of Staff), Maj.
William G. Boykin (later Lt. Gen.), and MSG Eric L. Haney (later
Command Sergeant Major and author of Inside Delta Force)
75th Ranger Regiment
United States Army Special Forces
USS Okinawa (LPH-3), 31st M.E.U., 3rd Battalion, 3rd Marines, and
HMM-165 (see numerous Navy and Marine Corps deployment reports)
USAF 1st Special Operations Wing, 8th and 16th Special Operations
Squadrons (AC-130/MC-130), USAF RED HORSE units, and numerous support
organizations
USAF Brand X (Early US Air Force Special Operations Command Combat
Control Team)
USAF 1st Combat Communication Group
Helicopter Mine Countermeasures Squadron FOURTEEN (RH-53D Sea
Stallions)
mrliu918
2009-06-20 06:30:42 UTC
Permalink
Re: Indo-American relationship and Cooperation 美国和印度的外交关系

Quotation from wikipedia and others sources:

http://us.rediff.com/news/2005/jul/20analysis.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-II
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddha

Three thousand, one hundred and five words, give the few innocuous
ones he extemporaneously inserted into the text and take the few he
spontaneously omitted. A fraction over 35 minutes delivery time --
and, not counting the standing ovation when he was introduced and the
sustained applause when he concluded, 29 interruptions for applause.

That's the statistics of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's [ Images ]
speech to the joint session of Congress, in the Great Hall of the
House of Representatives, on Capitol Hill. And beneath those
statistics, lie little stories.

Buzzwords and phrases like 'commitment to democracy' are guaranteed
applause-bait, and they did not disappoint. References to initiatives
jointly agreed on between President George W Bush [ Images ] and Prime
Minister Singh, too, invited and got applause; as did a reference to
the achievements of the Indian American community.

'There is much we can accomplish together'
References to the need for a hard line on terrorism, without
sacrificing the openness that characterises the democracies of the US
and India, were similarly guaranteed to go down well with the
assembled lawmakers of both Houses. They did.

The best phrased, and articulated, segment of the speech was the one
referring to the US and India as natural partners. 'Partnerships can
be of two kinds,' Singh told his audience. 'There are partnerships
based on principle, and partnerships based on pragmatism. I believe we
are at a juncture where we can embark on a partnership that can draw
both on
principle as well as pragmatism. We must build on this opportunity.'

Images: PM addresses US Congress
It told the lawmakers that they would not have to look too hard to
justify anything they did in the name of this partnership; that every
step, every act either nation took in the direction of the other had
its own in-built justification. The lawmakers loved it, and showed it
in the fervor and duration of the applause.

And yet, the most significant moment came towards the very end when
Singh, in the strongest articulation yet of the case for India to be
accorded a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, made his pitch
openly to the lawmakers.

'On the reform of the United Nations,' Singh told his audience, 'we
believe that it is time to recognize the enormous changes that have
occurred since the present structure was established. There must be
comprehensive reform of the United Nations to make it more effective
and also more representative. The UN Security Council must be
restructured as part of the reform process. In this context, you would
agree that the voice of the world's largest democracy surely cannot be
left unheard on the Security Council when the United Nations is being
restructured.'
...................................

Pokhran-II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pokharan-II refers to test explosions of five nuclear devices, three
on 11 May and two on 13 May 1998, conducted by India at the Pokhran
test range.These nuclear tests resulted in a variety of sanctions
against India by a number of major states. On 18 May 1974 India
exploded its first nuclear device code named Smiling Buddha. After
about a quarter century, on Buddha Jayanti, 11 May 1998, Operation
Shakti was carried out. Shakti (शक्ति in Sanskrit meaning 'Strength'),
is also the name of the Hindu Goddess of strength. Shakti was the
codename for Pokhran-II.

Contents [hide]
1 Birth of India's nuclear weapons program
2 Preparations for the test
3 The test team
3.1 Project Chief Coordinators
3.2 Development and test teams
3.3 Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
3.4 Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO)
4 The devices
4.1 Shakti I
4.2 Shakti II
4.3 Shakti III
4.4 Shakti IV
4.5 Shakti V
4.6 Production and Preparation of Devices
5 Detonations
6 Reactions to the tests
6.1 Reactions in India
6.2 Reactions from abroad
7 Test yields
8 Images
9 References
9.1 External links
9.2 Books
10 See also

Smiling Buddha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi at Pokhran after the
explosionThe Smiling Buddha was the first nuclear test explosion by
India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran. It was also the first confirmed
nuclear test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council[citation needed].

Contents [hide]
1 Preparation and design
2 Code name
3 Effects
4 Notes
5 External links

[edit] Preparation and design
Post by mrliu918
Quotation form wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Coo...
Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Indo-Soviet Union relations
     India      Soviet Union
The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was a
treaty signed between India the Soviet Union in August 1971 that
specified mutual strategic cooperation. The treaty was a significant
deviation from India's previous position of Non-alignment in the Cold
War[1] and in the prelude to the Bangladesh war, it was a key
development in a situation of increasing Sino-American ties and
American pressure.[2][3] The treaty was later adopted to the Indo-
Bangladesh Treaty of Friendship and cooperation in 1972.[4]
Contents [hide]
1 Indo-Soviet relations
1.1 Early relations
1.2 Late 1960s
2 Post-cold war ties
3 References
[edit] Indo-Soviet relations
[edit] Early relations
India's relation to the Soviet Union initially after the former's
independence was ambivalent, guided by Nehru's decision to remain non-
aligned, and his government's active part in the Commonwealth of
Nations. However, in February 1954, the U.S. administration of
President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced the decision to provide arms
to Pakistan, followed a month later by Pakistan joining the SEATO and
subsequently the CENTO. These agreements assured Pakistan the supply
of sophisticated military hardware and economic aid.[4]
The developing situation alarmed New Delhi, which had uncomfortable
relations with Pakistan. Since Pakistan also bordered the Soviet
Union, it also provided Moscow with the necessity as well as the
opportunity to develop its relations with New Delhi. India’s status as
a leader of the Non-aligned Movement would also allow the USSR to
bolster Soviet policy in the Third World. India and the USSR therefore
pursued similar policies based on common security threat born out of
the US interests in Pakistan. It was in this context that India and
Soviet Union exchanged military Attaches.[4] Although Indo-Soviet
cooperation had begun, the investment of soviet-military aid to India
only begun in the context of deteriorating Sino-Soviet and Sino-Indian
relations. Following the 1962 Sino-Indian war, the Sino-Pakistani axis
was also an impetus for growing cooperation between India and the
soviet union.[4]
[edit] Late 1960s
mrliu918
2009-06-20 06:48:17 UTC
Permalink
Indian-Pakistan nuclear test and international relationship 巴基斯坦和印度的核武竞


Quotation from wikipedia and others sourecs:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction

On 28 May 1998, a few weeks after India's second nuclear test
(Operation Shakti), Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices in the
Chagai Hills in the Chaghai district, Balochistan. This operation was
named Chagai-I by Pakistan, the base having been long-constructed by
provincial martial law administrator Rahimuddin Khan during the 1980s.
Pakistan's fissile material production takes place at Kahuta and
Khushab/Jauharabad, where weapons-grade plutonium is made by the
scientists.[3]

Pakistan

Nuclear program start date 1 January 1972
First nuclear weapon test 28 May 1998
First fusion weapon test 11 March 1983
Last nuclear test 30 May 1998
Largest yield test 25-36 kT of TNT (announced)28 May 1998
Total tests 6 detonations
Peak stockpile 90-250 warheads (2008)
Current stockpile 90-250 warheads (increasing stockpiles)
Maximum missile range 4,500 km (Shaheen-III)
NPT signatory No

Missiles

Babur cruise missileBelow is the list of all the missiles currently in
Pakistan's inventory or under development that can carry a non-
conventional payload (Nuclear in Pakistan's case).

Pakistan's Nuclear Capable Missiles Name/Designation Class Range: Max
Range with Min Payload Payload Status
Hatf-I SRBM 100 Km 500 Kg Operational with Pakistan's Armed Forces
Abdali SRBM 180 Km 500 Kg Operational with Pakistan's Armed Forces
Ghaznavi SRBM 290 Km 500 Kg Operational with Pakistan's Armed Forces
M-11 SRBM 300 Km 500 Kg Operational with Pakistan's Armed Forces
Shaheen-I SRBM 750 Km 850 Kg Operational with Pakistan's Armed Forces
Ghauri-I MRBM 1500 Km 750 Kg Operational with Pakistan's Armed Forces
Ghauri-II MRBM 1800-2300 Km 750-1200 Kg Operational with Pakistan's
Armed Forces
Shaheen-II MRBM 2000-3500 Km 500-2500 Kg Operational with Pakistan's
Armed Forces
Ghauri-III IRBM 3600+ Km 1200+ Kg Under Development
Shaheen-III IRBM 4000+ Km 1200+ Kg Under Development
Babur Land Attack Cruise missile 700 Km 500 Kg Operational with
Pakistan's Armed Forces
Ra'ad Air Launched Cruise Missile 350 Km 500 Kg Operational with
Pakistan's Armed Forces


[edit] Aircraft delivery

Contents [hide]
1 Nuclear weapons
1.1 A Brief History- The Civilian Nuclear Programme
1.2 Policy
1.3 Protection
2 Infrastructure
2.1 Uranium Infrastructure
2.2 Plutonium Infrastructure
2.3 Arsenal
2.4 Foreign assistance
2.5 Doctrine
2.6 Role of the USA in guarding the nuclear weapons
2.7 National Security Council
3 Weapons development agencies
3.1 National Engineering & Scientific Commission (NESCOM)
3.2 Ministry of Defense Production
3.3 Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)
3.4 Space and Upper Atmospheric Research Commission (SUPARCO)
3.5 Precision Engineering Complex (PEC)
3.6 Ministry of Industries & Production
4 Missiles
5 Aircraft delivery
6 Naval Delivery
7 Notes
8 See also
9 External links



[edit] Nuclear weapons
Post by mrliu918
Re: Indo-American relationship and Cooperation 美国和印度的外交关系
http://us.rediff.com/news/2005/jul/20analysis.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pokhran-IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smiling_Buddha
Three thousand, one hundred and five words, give the few innocuous
ones he extemporaneously inserted into the text and take the few he
spontaneously omitted. A fraction over 35 minutes delivery time --
and, not counting the standing ovation when he was introduced and the
sustained applause when he concluded, 29 interruptions for applause.
That's the statistics of Prime Minister Manmohan Singh's [ Images ]
speech to the joint session of Congress, in the Great Hall of the
House of Representatives, on Capitol Hill. And beneath those
statistics, lie little stories.
Buzzwords and phrases like 'commitment to democracy' are guaranteed
applause-bait, and they did not disappoint. References to initiatives
jointly agreed on between President George W Bush [ Images ] and Prime
Minister Singh, too, invited and got applause; as did a reference to
the achievements of the Indian American community.
'There is much we can accomplish together'
References to the need for a hard line on terrorism, without
sacrificing the openness that characterises the democracies of the US
and India, were similarly guaranteed to go down well with the
assembled lawmakers of both Houses. They did.
The best phrased, and articulated, segment of the speech was the one
referring to the US and India as natural partners. 'Partnerships can
be of two kinds,' Singh told his audience. 'There are partnerships
based on principle, and partnerships based on pragmatism. I believe we
are at a juncture where we can embark on a partnership that can draw
both on
principle as well as pragmatism. We must build on this opportunity.'
Images: PM addresses US Congress
It told the lawmakers that they would not have to look too hard to
justify anything they did in the name of this partnership; that every
step, every act either nation took in the direction of the other had
its own in-built justification. The lawmakers loved it, and showed it
in the fervor and duration of the applause.
And yet, the most significant moment came towards the very end when
Singh, in the strongest articulation yet of the case for India to be
accorded a permanent seat on the UN Security Council, made his pitch
openly to the lawmakers.
'On the reform of the United Nations,' Singh told his audience, 'we
believe that it is time to recognize the enormous changes that have
occurred since the present structure was established. There must be
comprehensive reform of the United Nations to make it more effective
and also more representative. The UN Security Council must be
restructured as part of the reform process. In this context, you would
agree that the voice of the world's largest democracy surely cannot be
left unheard on the Security Council when the United Nations is being
restructured.'
...................................
Pokhran-II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pokharan-II refers to test explosions of five nuclear devices, three
on 11 May and two on 13 May 1998, conducted by India at the Pokhran
test range.These nuclear tests resulted in a variety of sanctions
against India by a number of major states. On 18 May 1974 India
exploded its first nuclear device code named Smiling Buddha. After
about a quarter century, on Buddha Jayanti, 11 May 1998, Operation
Shakti was carried out. Shakti (शक्ति in Sanskrit meaning 'Strength'),
is also the name of the Hindu Goddess of strength. Shakti was the
codename for Pokhran-II.
Contents [hide]
1 Birth of India's nuclear weapons program
2 Preparations for the test
3 The test team
3.1 Project Chief Coordinators
3.2 Development and test teams
3.3 Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)
3.4 Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO)
4 The devices
4.1 Shakti I
4.2 Shakti II
4.3 Shakti III
4.4 Shakti IV
4.5 Shakti V
4.6 Production and Preparation of Devices
5 Detonations
6 Reactions to the tests
6.1 Reactions in India
6.2 Reactions from abroad
7 Test yields
8 Images
9 References
9.1 External links
9.2 Books
10 See also
Smiling Buddha
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi at Pokhran after the
explosionThe Smiling Buddha was the first nuclear test explosion by
India on 18 May 1974 at Pokhran. It was also the first confirmed
nuclear test by a nation outside the five permanent members of the
United Nations Security Council[citation needed].
Contents [hide]
1 Preparation and design
2 Code name
3 Effects
4 Notes
5 External links
[edit] Preparation and design
Post by mrliu918
Quotation form wikipedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Coo...
Indo-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Indo-Soviet Union relations
     India      Soviet Union
The Indo-Soviet Treaty of Peace, Friendship and Cooperation was a
treaty signed between India the Soviet Union in August 1971 that
specified mutual strategic cooperation. The treaty was a significant
deviation from India's previous position of Non-alignment in the Cold
War[1] and in the prelude to the Bangladesh war, it was a key
development in a situation of increasing Sino-American ties and
American pressure.[2][3] The treaty was later adopted to the Indo-
Bangladesh Treaty of Friendship and cooperation in 1972.[4]
Contents [hide]
1 Indo-Soviet relations
1.1 Early relations
1.2 Late 1960s
2 Post-cold war ties
3 References
[edit] Indo-Soviet relations
[edit] Early relations
India's relation to the Soviet Union initially after the former's
independence was ambivalent, guided by Nehru's decision to remain non-
aligned, and his government's active part in the Commonwealth of
Nations. However, in February 1954, the U.S. administration of
President Dwight D. Eisenhower announced the decision to provide arms
to Pakistan, followed a month later by Pakistan joining the SEATO and
subsequently the CENTO. These agreements assured Pakistan the supply
of sophisticated military hardware and economic aid.[4]
The developing situation alarmed New Delhi, which had uncomfortable
relations with Pakistan. Since Pakistan also bordered the Soviet
Union, it also provided Moscow with the necessity as well as the
opportunity to develop its relations with New Delhi. India’s status as
a leader of the Non-aligned Movement would also allow the USSR to
bolster Soviet policy in the Third World. India and the USSR therefore
pursued similar policies based on common security threat born out of
the US interests in Pakistan. It was in this context that India and
Soviet Union exchanged military Attaches.[4] Although Indo-Soviet
cooperation had begun, the investment of soviet-military aid to India
only begun in the context of deteriorating Sino-Soviet and Sino-Indian
relations. Following the 1962 Sino-Indian war, the Sino-Pakistani axis
was also an impetus for growing cooperation between India and the
soviet union.[4]
[edit] Late 1960s- 隱藏被引用文字 -
- 顯示被引用文字 -
mrliu918
2009-06-15 06:38:16 UTC
Permalink
USA VS USSR in Olympic boxing 1955 - 1985

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Olympic Games Discipline Events Med. Nation Name / Team
Moscow 1980 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men STEVENSON, Teofilo
Moscow 1980 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men SABIROV, Shamil
Moscow 1980 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men LESOV, Petr
Moscow 1980 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men HERNANDEZ, Juan
Moscow 1980 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men FINK, Rudi
Moscow 1980 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men HERRERA VERA,
Angel
Moscow 1980 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men OLIVA,
Patrizio
Moscow 1980 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men ALDAMA CABRERA,
Andres
Moscow 1980 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men MARTINEZ,
Armando
Moscow 1980 Boxing 71-75kg Men GOMEZ, Jose
Moscow 1980 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men KACAR,
Slobodan

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Montreal 1976 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men STEVENSON, Teofilo
Montreal 1976 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men HERNANDEZ
PADRON, Jorge
Montreal 1976 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men RANDOLPH, Leonard
Montreal 1976 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men GU, Young Jo
Montreal 1976 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men HERRERA VERA,
Angel
Montreal 1976 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men DAVIS, Howard
Edward, Jr.
Montreal 1976 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men LEONARD,
Ray Charles
Montreal 1976 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men BACHFELD,
Jochen
Montreal 1976 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men RYBICKI,
Jerzy
Montreal 1976 Boxing 71-75kg Men SPINKS, Michael L.
Montreal 1976 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men SPINKS,
Leonard, Jr.

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Munich 1972 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men STEVENSON, Teofilo
Munich 1972 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men GEDO, György
Munich 1972 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men KOSTADINOV, Georghi
Munich 1972 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men MARTINEZ ROMERO,
Orlando
Munich 1972 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men KUZNETSOV,
Boris
Munich 1972 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men SZCZEPANSKI, Jan
Munich 1972 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men SEALES, Ray
P.
Munich 1972 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men CORREA VAILLANT,
Emilio
Munich 1972 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men KOTTYSCH,
Dieter
Munich 1972 Boxing 71-75kg Men LEMECHEW, Viacheslav
Munich 1972 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men PARLOV,
Mate

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Mexico 1968 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men FOREMAN, George
Mexico 1968 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men RODRIGUEZ,
Francisco
Mexico 1968 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men DELGADO, Ricardo
Mexico 1968 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men SOKOLOV, Valeri
Mexico 1968 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men ROLDAN, Antonio
Mexico 1968 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men HARRIS, Ronald
Woodson
Mexico 1968 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men KULEJ,
Jerzy
Mexico 1968 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men WOLKE, Manfred
Mexico 1968 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men LAGUTIN,
Boris
Mexico 1968 Boxing 71-75kg Men FINNEGAN, Christopher Martin
Mexico 1968 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men POZNYAK,
Daniel

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Tokyo 1964 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men FRAZIER, Joseph
Tokyo 1964 Boxing - 51kg (flyweight) Men ATZORI, Fernando
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men SAKURAI, Takao
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men STEPASHKIN,
Stanislav
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men GRUDZIEN, Jozef
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men KULEJ,
Jerzy
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men KASPRZYK,
Marian
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men LAGUTIN,
Boris
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 71-75kg Men POPENCHENKO, Valeri
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men PINTO,
Cosimo

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Rome 1960 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men DE PICCOLI, Francesco
Rome 1960 Boxing - 51kg (flyweight) Men TÖRÖK, Gyula
Rome 1960 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men GRIGORYEV, Oleg
Rome 1960 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men MUSSO, Francesco
Rome 1960 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men PAZDZIOR, Kazimierz
Rome 1960 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men NEMECEK,
Bohumil
Rome 1960 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men BENVENUTI,
Giovanni
Rome 1960 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men MCCLURE,
Wilbert James
Rome 1960 Boxing 71-75kg Men CROOK, Edward Jr.
Rome 1960 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men ALI, Muhammad

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Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men
RADEMACHER, Thomas Peter
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing - 51kg (flyweight) Men SPINKS,
Terence George
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men
BEHRENDT, Wolfgang
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men
SAFRONOV, Vladimir
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men
MCTAGGART, Richard
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh
Men ENGIBARYAN, Vladimir
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men
LINCA, Nicolae
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight)
Men PAPP, Laszlo
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 71-75kg Men SHATKOV, Gennadi
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight)
Men BOYD, James Felton

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Post by mrliu918
Are you serious?
There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.
However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century.  Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.
If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .
If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.
Sincerely
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980
1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949  liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949  Founding of PROC
1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel
1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory
1959 – 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam
1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-06-15 07:33:45 UTC
Permalink
USA VS USSR & communist block in Olympic boxing 1955 - 1985

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Olympic Games Discipline Events Med. Nation Name / Team
Moscow 1980 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men STEVENSON, Teofilo
Moscow 1980 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men SABIROV, Shamil
Moscow 1980 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men LESOV, Petr
Moscow 1980 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men HERNANDEZ, Juan
Moscow 1980 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men FINK, Rudi
Moscow 1980 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men HERRERA VERA,
Angel
Moscow 1980 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men OLIVA,
Patrizio
Moscow 1980 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men ALDAMA CABRERA,
Andres
Moscow 1980 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men MARTINEZ,
Armando
Moscow 1980 Boxing 71-75kg Men GOMEZ, Jose
Moscow 1980 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men KACAR,
Slobodan


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Olympic Games Discipline Events Med. Nation Name / Team
Montreal 1976 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men STEVENSON, Teofilo
Montreal 1976 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men HERNANDEZ
PADRON, Jorge
Montreal 1976 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men RANDOLPH, Leonard
Montreal 1976 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men GU, Young Jo
Montreal 1976 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men HERRERA VERA,
Angel
Montreal 1976 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men DAVIS, Howard
Edward, Jr.
Montreal 1976 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men LEONARD,
Ray Charles
Montreal 1976 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men BACHFELD,
Jochen
Montreal 1976 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men RYBICKI,
Jerzy
Montreal 1976 Boxing 71-75kg Men SPINKS, Michael L.
Montreal 1976 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men SPINKS,
Leonard, Jr.


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Munich 1972 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men STEVENSON, Teofilo
Munich 1972 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men GEDO, György
Munich 1972 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men KOSTADINOV, Georghi
Munich 1972 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men MARTINEZ ROMERO,
Orlando
Munich 1972 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men KUZNETSOV,
Boris
Munich 1972 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men SZCZEPANSKI, Jan
Munich 1972 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men SEALES, Ray
P.
Munich 1972 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men CORREA
VAILLANT,
Emilio
Munich 1972 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men KOTTYSCH,
Dieter
Munich 1972 Boxing 71-75kg Men LEMECHEW, Viacheslav
Munich 1972 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men PARLOV,
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Mexico 1968 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men FOREMAN, George
Mexico 1968 Boxing - 48kg (light-flyweight) Men RODRIGUEZ,
Francisco
Mexico 1968 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men DELGADO, Ricardo
Mexico 1968 Boxing 51 - 54kg (bantamweight) Men SOKOLOV, Valeri
Mexico 1968 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men ROLDAN, Antonio
Mexico 1968 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men HARRIS, Ronald
Woodson
Mexico 1968 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men KULEJ,
Jerzy
Mexico 1968 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men WOLKE, Manfred
Mexico 1968 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men LAGUTIN,
Boris
Mexico 1968 Boxing 71-75kg Men FINNEGAN, Christopher Martin
Mexico 1968 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men POZNYAK,
Daniel


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Tokyo 1964 Boxing + 81kg (heavyweight) Men FRAZIER, Joseph
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Tokyo 1964 Boxing 54 - 57kg (featherweight) Men STEPASHKIN,
Stanislav
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 57 - 60kg (lightweight) Men GRUDZIEN, Jozef
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 60 - 63.5kg (light-welterweigh Men KULEJ,
Jerzy
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 63.5 - 67kg (welterweight) Men KASPRZYK,
Marian
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men LAGUTIN,
Boris
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 71-75kg Men POPENCHENKO, Valeri
Tokyo 1964 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men PINTO,
Cosimo


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SAFRONOV, Vladimir
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Men ENGIBARYAN, Vladimir
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LINCA, Nicolae
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Men PAPP, Laszlo
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 71-75kg Men SHATKOV, Gennadi
Melbourne / Stockholm 1956 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight)
Men BOYD, James Felton


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Post by mrliu918
Are you serious?
There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.
However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century. Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.
If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .
If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.
Sincerely
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia....
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980
1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC
1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel
1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory
1959 – 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam
1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-07-18 05:55:34 UTC
Permalink
Professional boxing and traumatic brain injury

Quotation from wikipedia and other sources

muhammad ali and parkinson Disease

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pugilistic_Parkinson's_syndrome
http://yubanet.com/life/How-Dangerous-is-Boxing-for-the-Brain.php
http://www.livescience.com/mysteries/070514_Boxing_Brain.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head_trauma
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traumatic_brain_injury

Dementia pugilistica
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Pugilistic Parkinson's syndrome)
Jump to: navigation, search
Dementia pugilistica
Classification and external resources

Boxers receive many blows involving rotational force, which is
implicated in concussion. Repeat concussions can lead to dementia
pugilistica.
DiseasesDB 11042
eMedicine sports/113

Dementia pugilistica (DP), also called chronic traumatic
encephalopathy (CTE), chronic boxer’s encephalopathy, traumatic
boxer’s encephalopathy, boxer's dementia, and punch-drunk syndrome
('punchy'), is a neurological disorder which may affect career boxers,
wrestlers, mixed martial artists, and football players[1] who receive
multiple dazing blows to the head. Dementia pugilistica, the severe
form of chronic traumatic brain injury,[2] commonly manifests as
declining mental and physical abilities such as dementia and
parkinsonism.
The encephalopathy develops over a period of years, with the average
time of onset being about 12–16 years after the start of a career in
boxing. The condition is thought to affect around 15% of professional
boxers, but it rarely affects other types of athletes.[3] The
condition may be caused by repeat concussions, or repeat subconcussive
blows (blows that are below the threshold of force necessary to cause
concussion), or both.[4] Due to the concern that boxing may cause CTE,
there is a movement among medical professionals to ban the sport.[5]
Medical professionals have called for such a ban since as early as the
1950s.[6]
The word pugilistica comes from the Latin root pugil, for boxer.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 Symptoms
2 Mechanism
3 History
4 Famous cases
5 See also
6 References
7 External links


[edit] Symptoms
The condition, which occurs in people who have suffered multiple
concussions, commonly manifests as dementia, or declining mental
ability, problems with memory, and parkinsonism, or tremors and lack
of coordination.[5] It can also cause speech problems[5] and an
unsteady gait. Patients with CTE may be prone to inappropriate or
explosive behavior and may display pathological jealousy or paranoia.
[5] Individuals displaying these symptoms also can be characterized as
"punchy," another term for a person suffering from dementia
pugilistica.
The brains of dementia pugilistica patients atrophy and lose neurons,
for example in the cerebellum.[4] The pyramidal tract dysfunctions.[4]
Sufferers may be treated with drugs used for Alzheimer's disease and
parkinsonism.[2]


Does Boxing Cause Brain Damage?

Almost certainly. Research has long shown that head trauma— something
no boxer cannot avoid over the years—puts one at risk for permanent
brain damage. Brain cells generally cannot repair themselves (as can
cells elsewhere in the body), so damaged neurons stay damaged. The
American Medical Association and British Medical Association have both
called for a ban on boxing, citing statistics of brain damage in
professional boxers.

Now a study to be presented this week at the American Academy of
Neurology's 59th Annual Meeting shows that amateur boxing also
increases the risk of brain injury.

For evidence, researchers puncture a subject's spinal cord to measure
the amount of certain chemicals in their cerebrospinal fluid, a liquid
that helps protect the brain from shock and sharp pressure changes.

The study found elevated levels of markers suggesting brain damage
following a bout of boxing.

Boxing deity Muhammad Ali famously lives with Parkinson syndrome, a
disorder of the nervous system caused by the degeneration of a group
of brain cells involved in voluntary movement. There has been no
conclusive evidence that Ali's disorder, which causes tremors,
slowness of movement and muscular rigidity, is a result of his boxing
career. However, his form of Parkinson's is associated with head
trauma.

You might encourage your Tyson-loving tyke to take up soccer instead.
The same study that looked at amateur boxing also investigated soccer
players and found no association between repeated ball-heading and
brain damage.

How Dangerous is Boxing for the Brain?
The "Heidelberg Boxing Study" does not find any clear risks from
amateur boxing
Published on Mar 29, 2008 - 7:04:19 AM
Email this article Printer friendly page
By: University Hospital of Heidelberg
March 28, 2008 - Boxing is possibly less dangerous for the brain than
previously feared – at least for amateurs. However, conclusive
statements on the level of danger are not yet possible. Whether
professional boxers such as Muhammad Ali contracted their later brain
conditions – in his case Parkinson's disease at the age of 40 –
presumably from boxing, remains unclear. The all-clear cannot be given
until more extensive studies of both amateur and professional boxers
tell us more about the risks for the brain from boxing.

This was the conclusion reached in the "Heidelberg Boxing Study", in
which high-resolution MRI data were used to search for tiny changes in
the brains of amateur boxers and a comparison group of non-boxers.
These changes are most likely precursors for later severe brain damage
such as Parkinson's disease or dementia.

The study by the Department of Neurology, University of Heidelberg
Medical Center has now been published in the American Journal of
Neuroradiology. In three of the 42 boxers, microhemorrhages were
found, while in the comparison group of 37 non-boxers there were no
such changes; however the difference was not statistically
significant. The study was carried out jointly with National Training
Center for Boxing in Heidelberg and the Department of Sport Medicine
at the University of Heidelberg Medical Center (Medical Director:
Professor Dr. Peter Bärtsch).

Microhemorrhages could be precursors to Parkinson's disease and
dementia

In boxing, the head is hit at a high speed and with great force. This
can lead to shear movement between different brain tissues, resulting
in microhemorrhages. "Injuries of this kind can be detected with the
help of a modern MR imaging device with a field strength of 3 Tesla
such as is available in Heidelberg," explained Professor Dr. Stefan HÃ
¤hnel, chief consultant at the Division of Neuroradiology, Department
of Neurology, University of Heidelberg Medical Center, who conducted
the study with Professor Dr. Uta Meyding-Lamadé, then chief
consultant at the Department of Neurology, University of Heidelberg
Medical Center, now Medical Director at Krankenhaus Nordwest in
Frankfurt.
..........................

Traumatic brain injury
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
See also: Brain injury
Traumatic brain injury
Classification and external resources

CT scan showing cerebral contusions, hemorrhage within the
hemispheres, subdural hematoma, and skull fractures[1]
ICD-10 S06.
ICD-9 800.0-801.9, 803.0-804.9, 850.0-854.1
DiseasesDB 5671
MedlinePlus 000028
eMedicine med/2820 neuro/153 ped/929
MeSH D001930

Traumatic brain injury (TBI, also called intracranial injury) occurs
when an outside force traumatically injures the brain. TBI can be
classified based on severity, mechanism (closed or penetrating head
injury), or other features (e.g. occurring in a specific location or
over a widespread area). Head injury usually refers to TBI, but is a
broader category because it can involve damage to structures other
than the brain, such as the scalp and skull.

Head injury
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Head trauma)
Jump to: navigation, search
Head injury
Classification and external resources
ICD-10 S00.0S09.
ICD-9 800-879
eMedicine neuro/153
MeSH D006259

See also: Traumatic brain injury
Head injury refers to trauma to the head. This may or may not include
injury to the brain.[1] However, the terms traumatic brain injury and
head injury are often used interchangeably in the medical literature.
[2]
The incidence (number of new cases) of head injury is 300 per 100,000
per year (0.3% of the population), with a mortality of 25 per 100,000
in North America and 9 per 100,000 in Britain. Head trauma is a common
cause of childhood hospitalization.[citation needed]
Contents
[hide]
1 Causes
2 Types of head injury
2.1 Concussion
2.2 Epidural hematoma
2.3 Subdural hematoma
2.4 Cerebral contusion
2.5 Diffuse axonal injury
3 Symptoms
4 Diagnosis and prognosis
4.1 Imaging
5 Management
5.1 Moderate / severe head injury
6 See also
7 References
8 External links
[edit] Causes
Common causes of head injury are traffic accidents, home and
occupational accidents, falls, and assaults. Bicycle accidents are
also a common cause of head injury-related death and disability,
especially among children.[3]
mrliu918
2009-06-15 06:42:20 UTC
Permalink
USA VS USSR & communist block in propaganda and movies

Quotation from wikipedia and other sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_IV
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambo:_First_Blood_Part_II
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambo_III

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Soldier_(1992_film)


Rocky IV
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the soundtrack to the movie, see Rocky IV (album).
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2007)
Rocky IV

Theatrical Release Poster
Directed by Sylvester Stallone
Produced by Robert Chartoff
Irwin Winkler
Written by Sylvester Stallone
Starring Sylvester Stallone
Talia Shire
Burt Young
Carl Weathers
Tony Burton
Brigitte Nielsen
Dolph Lundgren
Music by Vince DiCola
Themes by
Bill Conti
Cinematography Bill Butler
Editing by John W. Wheeler
Don Zimmerman
Studio United Artists
Distributed by MGM/UA Entertainment Co. (USA)
United International Pictures (Non-USA)
Release date(s) November 27, 1985
Running time 90 min
Country United States
Language English
Russian
Budget US$ 31,000,000
Preceded by Rocky III
Followed by Rocky V

Rocky IV is a 1985 boxing film, the fourth and most financially
successful movie of the Rocky franchise. [1] Rocky Balboa (played
again by Sylvester Stallone), plans to retire from boxing after
regaining his title from James "Clubber" Lang in Rocky III. An unknown
amateur boxer from the Soviet Union, Ivan Drago (played by Dolph
Lundgren), however, makes a bid to enter the U.S. boxing ranks. After
an exhibition match with Apollo Creed goes horribly and tragically
wrong, Rocky must step in and challenge the Russian boxer himself to
avenge the passing of his friend.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
2.1 Casting
2.2 Music
3 Reception
3.1 U.S. Box Office
3.2 Worldwide box office performance
4 Awards
5 References
6 External links


[edit] Plot
The story opens with "Eye of the Tiger" during the climax of Rocky's
rematch against Clubber Lang, where Rocky defeated Lang with a KO in
the third round to regain his title. The picture then fades and we see
Apollo Creed presenting his favor to Rocky shortly after the Lang
fight for helping him train. Meanwhile, Ivan Drago (Dolph Lundgren), a
highly intimidating 6 feet 5, 260 pound Soviet boxer, arrives in
America with his wife Ludmilla (Brigitte Nielsen), an Olympic gold
medal swimmer, his manager, Nicolai Koloff (Michael Pataki), and a
team of trainers headed by grizzled Russian coach Igor Rimsky (George
Rogan), and the Cuban Manuel Vega (James "Cannonball" Green) to
challenge the best American fighters. His manager takes great pride in
showing off the hi-tech equipment which aids in improving Drago's
performance. As a demonstration, Drago throws punches at a machine
that measures the hit's strength, exceeding 1800 psi per punch.
Motivated by patriotism and a desire to prove himself, Apollo is
desperate to step back into the ring in an exhibition bout against
Drago. Rocky has reservations, but comes round to supporting his
friend by helping to train him for the fight. Apollo sets the match
between himself and Drago in Las Vegas. With Rocky in his corner,
Apollo flamboyantly makes an even bigger show than when he first
fought Rocky - including fireworks and a patriotic theme. Starting the
fight in his trademark manner, Drago manages to catch him off-guard
quickly and batters Apollo with a series of devastating punches. At
the break, Rocky pleads with Apollo to quit the fight, but Apollo is
determined to finish, which only leads to tragedy when he collapses
and dies after he hits the canvas from Drago's continuous blows.
Rocky Balboa (Sylvester Stallone) faces up to Ivan Drago (Dolph
Lundgren) in Rocky IV
Devastated by the death of Apollo, Rocky comes to the decision he must
avenge his death by agreeing to fight Drago in his home country.
Supported by Apollo's manager Duke and his brother-in-law Paulie, he
flies to the Soviet Union to train. Unlike Drago, who is attached to
electrodes, is constantly monitored by computers, and works out with
ultra hi-tech equipment (and what are implied to be anabolic
steroids), Rocky gets down to business carrying logs; chopping wood
and pulling a sleigh. When Adrian shows up unexpectedly, providing
more reason to succeed, Rocky trains harder than ever, and ends his
training run by running up to the top of a mountain and screaming
Drago's name. After intense preparation for both fighters, the two men
finally meet in the ring.
Much like Apollo did in the previous fight, the Soviets introduce
Drago with an elaborate, patriotic ceremony that puts the attending
audience squarely on the side of Drago, leaving Rocky to be fiercely
booed. In contrast to his fight with Apollo, Drago immediately goes on
the offensive, repeatedly pounding Rocky, knocking him 15 feet across
the ring on one occasion, and casually shrugging off his punches.
After a pulverizing first round, with Drago easily winning, Rocky
comes back toward the end of the second and lands a shot that cuts
Drago just below his eye.
The injury is just what Rocky needs, as he and his corner realise that
Drago is just a man. Meanwhile, Drago, shaken by his injury regards
Rocky as inhuman. At this point, the fight becomes a fierce battle of
wills between the two boxers. Drago's confidence drops round after
round due to Rocky's seemingly limitless endurance, allowing Rocky to
get in under his guard and pound him relentlessly. By the fourteenth
round, the crowd has been won over by Rocky's determination and is
cheering him on. Koloff, fearing retribution from the Soviet Premier,
goes over to Drago and berates his performance, telling him to win.
Drago's response is to pick up Koloff by the throat, and proclaim that
he only fights for himself.
In the final round of the fight, Rocky and Drago trade punch after
punch. Eventually, Balboa manages to overcome Drago knocking him out,
to the shock of Soviet premier (who strongly resembles the then Soviet
leader Mikhail Gorbachev) and his aides who have no option but to
applaud Rocky for fear of backlash. Following his victory, Rocky gives
an impassioned speech to the crowd, acknowledging their initial and
mutual disdain for each other, and how they've come to respect and
admire each other during the fight.


Rambo: First Blood Part II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Rambo: First Blood Part II

Rambo: First Blood Part II movie poster
Directed by George P. Cosmatos
Sylvester Stallone (uncredited)[1]
Produced by Buzz Feitshans
Written by Screenplay:
Sylvester Stallone
James Cameron
Story:
Kevin Jarre
Characters:
David Morrell
Starring Sylvester Stallone
Richard Crenna
Charles Napier
Steven Berkoff
Julia Nickson-Soul
Music by Jerry Goldsmith
Peter Schless
Cinematography Jack Cardiff
Editing by Larry Bock
Mark Goldblatt
Mark Helfrich
Gib Jaffe
Frank E. Jiminez
Distributed by TriStar Pictures
Release date(s) May 22, 1985
Running time 94 min.
Country United States
Language English
Budget $44,000,000 (est.)
Gross revenue Domestic:
$150,415,432
Worldwide:
$300,400,432
Preceded by First Blood (1982)
Followed by Rambo III (1988)

Rambo: First Blood Part II (also known as Rambo II or First Blood Part
II in other countries), is a 1985 second movie in the Rambo series,
starring Sylvester Stallone as Vietnam veteran John Rambo. Picking up
where the first film left, this sequel is set in the context of the
Vietnam War POW/MIA issue; it sees Rambo released from prison by
Federal order to document the possible existence of POWs in Vietnam,
under the belief that he will find nothing, thus enabling the
government to sweep the issue under the rug.
Rambo: First Blood Part II was ghost-directed by George P. Cosmatos,
who later directed the movie Cobra with Sylvester Stallone and
Brigitte Nielsen. It was later revealed that Stallone had most of the
directorial control on First Blood.[1]
Rambo: First Blood Part II follows First Blood and was followed by
Rambo III in 1988 and Rambo in 2008.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
3 Critical and commercial reception
4 Awards
5 Other media
6 References
7 External links


[edit] Plot
Rambo is busy working in a labor camp prison, when he gets a visit
from his former commander, Colonel Samuel Trautman (Richard Crenna).
Trautman offers Rambo the chance to be released from prison after the
events of the first film and given full clemency, but on condition of
him going into Vietnam to search for American POWs. Rambo meets
Marshal Murdock (Charles Napier), an American bureaucrat who is in
charge of the operation and he tells Rambo that the American public is
demanding knowledge about the POWs and they want a trained commando to
go in and search for the POWs. However, Rambo is briefed that he is
only to photograph the POWs and not to rescue them, nor is he to
engage any enemy soldiers. Rambo reluctantly agrees and he is then
told that an agent of the American government will be there to receive
him in the jungles of Vietnam.
He is then parachuted into the Vietnamese jungles, however while
parachuting, Rambo loses some of his equipment and is left only with
his knives, his bow, and arrows. He meets the American agent, a girl
named Co (Julia Nickson) who wants to go to America. Rambo comes to
the camp and finds American POWs there, and he rescues one of them.
He, Co and the American POW are in a boat when a gunboat attacks them,
Rambo however sends Co and the POW to safety and manages to destroy
the gunboat with an RPG. When Rambo calls for extraction, he is denied
as Murdock fears what will happen to him and his party if the American
public come to know about it.
Rambo and the American POW are captured. He learns that the Soviet
Army is aiding the Vietnamese and training them, and is tortured badly
by a Soviet officer, Lt. Col. Podovsky (Steven Berkoff) and his robust
henchman Sergeant Yushin. Rambo is ordered to contact the American
military and tell them that they should not send any more commandos
for rescue operations in Vietnam. Meanwhile, Co enters the camp in the
guise of a prostitute and comes to the hut in which Rambo is held
captive. Rambo then agrees to Podovsky's condition, but instead
threatens Murdock on the radio that he is coming to get him, then
escapes from captivity into a nearby jungle with Co's help. Co then
tends to Rambo's wounds and begins to implore him to take her to the
United States. Rambo agrees and they share a kiss. But then, some
Vietnamese soldiers attack them and Co is killed. Rambo kills them all
and then he buries Co's body in the jungles, promising to never forget
her and deeply saddened by the romance that was never meant to be.
Following his escape, many Soviet and Vietnamese soldiers are looking
for him. Rambo assembles his weapons, and using guerilla warfare
tactics, is able to kill a large number of enemy troops. He then
proceeds to a small enemy camp and destroys it and several vehicles
with explosive arrows. He then hijacks a UH-1N Twin Huey helicopter
from the Soviets after killing Sergeant Yushin and proceeds towards
the POW camp. He destroys most of the camp with the helicopter, then
lands and arms himself with the M60 machine gun that is mounted on the
Huey, kills the remaining soldiers, and rescues all the POWs. They get
to the helicopter and move towards the American camp in Thailand.
However, Lt. Col. Podovsky chases them in his Mil Mi-24 helicopter
gunship. Although Rambo's helicopter is heavily damaged by Podovsky's
helicopter, he manages to go forward and descending his helicopter on
a river, fakes his death, as soon as Podovsky comes near him and gets
careless, Rambo gets up and fires an LAW at Podovsky's chopper,
obliterating it.
Rambo then returns to the base and using the M60E3 machine gun from
the Huey destroys Murdock's command center. He then unsheathes his
knife and threatens Murdock to find and rescue the remaining American
POWs in Vietnam. Trautman then comforts Rambo and tries to pacify him.
Rambo however gets angry and says that he only wants his country to
love its soldiers as much as its soldiers love it. Rambo then moves
towards an unknown destination. Trautman asks him: "How will you live,
John?" To which Rambo replies: "Day by Day." The film credits roll as
Rambo walks off into the distance while his mentor watches him.

Rambo III
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the film. For the video game, see Rambo III
(video game).
Rambo III

Rambo III movie poster
Directed by Peter MacDonald
Produced by Buzz Feitshans
Mario Kassar
Andrew G. Vajna
Written by Screenplay:
Sylvester Stallone
Sheldon Lettich
Characters:
David Morrell
Starring Sylvester Stallone
Richard Crenna
Marc de Jonge
Kurtwood Smith
Sasson Gabai
Music by Jerry Goldsmith
Distributed by TriStar Pictures
Release date(s) May 25, 1988
Running time 101 min.
Country United States
Language English
Budget $65,000,000 (est.)
Gross revenue Domestic:
$53,715,611
Worldwide:
$189,015,611
Preceded by Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985)
Followed by Rambo (2008)

Rambo III (also known as First Blood Part III in Malaysia) is a 1988
American action film released on May 25, 1988. It is the third film in
the Rambo series following First Blood and Rambo: First Blood Part II.
It was in turn followed by Rambo in 2008.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
3 Other media
4 References
5 External links


[edit] Plot
The film opens with Colonel Samuel Trautman (Richard Crenna) returning
to Thailand (where the second film took place) to once again enlist
the help of Vietnam veteran John J. Rambo (Sylvester Stallone). After
witnessing Rambo's victory in a stick-fighting match, Trautman visits
the construction site of the temple Rambo is helping to build and asks
Rambo to join him on a mission to Afghanistan. The mission is meant to
supply weapons, including FIM-92 Stinger missiles, to Afghan rebels,
the Mujahideen, who are fighting the Soviets in the Soviet-Afghan War.
Despite showing him photos of civilians suffering under Soviet
military intervention, Rambo refuses and Trautman chooses to go on his
own.
While in Afghanistan, Trautman's troops are ambushed by Soviet troops
while passing through the mountains at night. Trautman is imprisoned
in a Soviet base and coerced for information by Colonel Zaysen (Marc
de Jonge) and his henchman Kourov (Randy Raney). Rambo learns of the
incident from embassy field officer Robert Griggs (Kurtwood Smith) and
convinces Griggs to take him through an unofficial operation, despite
Grigg's warning that the U.S. government will deny any knowledge of
his actions if killed or caught. Rambo immediately flies to Pakistan
where he meets up with Mousa (Sasson Gabai), a weapons supplier who
agrees to take him to a village deep in the Afghan desert, close to
the Soviet base where Trautman is kept. The Mujahideen in the village
are already hesitant to help Rambo in the first place, but are
definitely convinced not to help him when their village is attacked by
Soviet helicopters after one of Mousa's shop assistants has informed
the Soviets of Rambo's presence. Aided only by Mousa and a young boy
named Hamid (Doudi Shoua), Rambo makes his way to the Soviet base and
starts his attempts to free Trautman. The first attempt is
unsuccessful and results not only in Hamid getting shot in the leg,
but also in Rambo himself getting wood shrapnel in the side. After
escaping from the base, Rambo tends to Hamid's wounds and sends him
and Mousa away to safety.
The next day, Rambo returns to the base once again, just in time to
rescue Trautman from being tortured with a blow-torch. After rescuing
several other prisoners, Rambo steals a helicopter and escapes from
the base. However, the helicopter soon crashes and Rambo and Trautman
are forced to continue on foot. After a confrontation in a cave, where
Rambo and Trautman eliminate several Soviet Spetsnaz commandos
including Kourov, they are confronted by an entire army of Soviet
tanks, headed by Zaysen. Just as they are about to be overwhelmed by
the might of the Red Army, the Mujahideen warriors, together with
Mousa and Hamid, ride onto the battlefield by the hundreds in a
cavalry charge, overwhelming the Communists. In the ensuing battle, in
which both Trautman and John are wounded, Rambo manages to kill Zaysen
by driving a tank into the Russian's helicopter. Rambo survives the
explosion and gets out of the tank. At the end of the battle Rambo and
Trautman say goodbye to their Mujahideen friends and leave Afghanistan
to go home.
[edit] Production
The film's domestic box office gross was $53,715,611, which was about
$11 million lower than its overall budget. However, it received a
large worldwide gross of $189,015,611, or $135,300,000
internationally, excluding revenue from video rentals. Some critics
note that the timing of the movie, with its unabashedly anti-Soviet
tone, ran afoul of the opening of Communism to the West under Mikhail
Gorbachev, which had already changed the image of the Soviet Union to
a substantial degree by the time the movie was finished.[1]
The 1990 Guinness World Records deemed Rambo III the most violent film
ever made, with 221 acts of violence, at least 70 explosions, and over
108 characters killed on-screen. However, the body count of the fourth
film in the series, Rambo, surpassed that record, with 261 kills.
The Mi-24 Hind-D helicopters seen in the film are in fact modified A$Bb^(B
rospatiale SA 330 Puma transport helicopters with fabricated bolt-on
wings similar to the real Hind-Ds which were mainly used in the former
Soviet bloc nations. The other helicopter depicted is a slightly
reshaped Aerospatiale Gazelle.
An extensive film score was written by Oscar-winning American composer
Jerry Goldsmith; however, much of it was not used. Instead, much of
the music Goldsmith penned for the previous installment was recycled.
The original CD/LP contained only a portion of the new music. A more
complete 75-minute version of the score was released years later.
According to a report by the CBC's The Fifth Estate, trip wires were
used to bring down the horses, causing some accusations of animal
cruelty.[2]
The film is dedicated to "the gallant people of Afghanistan."

Universal Soldier (1992 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Universal Soldier.
Universal Soldier

Theatrical release poster
Directed by Roland Emmerich
Produced by Mario Kassar
Allen Shapiro
Written by Richard Rothstein
Christopher Leitch
Dean Devlin
Starring Jean-Claude Van Damme
Dolph Lundgren
Ally Walker
Ed O'Ross
Cinematography Karl Walter Lindenlaub
Editing by Michael J. Duthie
Distributed by TriStar Pictures
Release date(s) July 10, 1992
Running time 102 min.
Language English
Budget $23,000,000
(estimated)
Followed by Universal Soldier II: Brothers in Arms

Universal Soldier is a 1992 science fiction film, directed by Roland
Emmerich, and starring Jean-Claude Van Damme and Dolph Lundgren as
soldiers who kill each other in Vietnam but are reanimated in a secret
Army project along with a large group of other previously dead
soldiers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 Plot
3 Casting
4 Alternate ending
5 Reception
6 External links


[edit] Production
The film was followed by two television movie sequels in 1998 --
Universal Soldier II: Brothers in Arms and Universal Soldier III:
Unfinished Business -- with an all new cast.
In 1999, a theatrical sequel, Universal Soldier: The Return, ignored
the television films, with only Van Damme returning from the original
film.
This was the last film encoded in Cinema Digital Sound.
Deveraux's code number GR44 is a reference to director Roland
Emmerich's first film Moon 44.
Most of the film was shot in Arizona. The Vietnamese jungle and
village scenes were shot on a golf course in Clarkdale, Arizona. Some
exterior scenes were shot on location at the Hoover Dam and Clarkdale,
Arizona.
At the 1992 Cannes film festival, Van Damme and Lundgren were involved
in a verbal altercation that almost turned physical when both men
pushed each other only to be separated. On his website, Dolph Lundgren
confirmed that it was just a publicity stunt to promote the film.
Universal Soldier is Rated R for strong graphic violence and for
strong language.
The original script included a voice-over announcement that Devereaux
had died several days after the end of the film.
[edit] Plot
Near the end of the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War, an
American military squad receives orders to secure a village against
North Vietnamese forces. Pvt. Luc Deveraux (Jean-Claude Van Damme)
comes to find the members of his squad and various villagers dead with
their ears missing. His comrade in arms, Sgt. Andrew Scott (Dolph
Lundgren) is the cause of this, having gone murderously insane.
Deveraux finds that Scott, while holding up a string of severed ears,
is also holding a young boy and girl hostage. Deveraux tries to reason
with Scott, saying that the war is over. Scott becomes infuriated and
shoots the boy in front of him, then orders Deveraux to shoot the girl
in order to prove his loyalty.
Deveraux refuses and stops Scott from shooting the girl. The girl
attempts to escape, but Scott throws a grenade at her, killing her.
Luc and Scott shoot each other and both are killed. The next morning,
a U.S. Special Forces squad finds their bodies and the commanding
officer of the squad gives the medics orders to "bag their bodies in
ice."
Jumping to modern day, terrorists have taken over the Hoover Dam and
the police agencies are ordered not to intervene or make any attempt
to rescue the hostages. Instead, the Universal Soldiers (or
"UniSols"), an elite counter terrorism unit, are called with Deveraux
(now designated "GR44") and Scott (now designated "GR13") among this
team. They apparently have been revived with no memory of their
previous lives. Deveraux has flashbacks of his previous life,
including a deleted scene in which he meets a Vietnamese bar girl at a
Vietnamese bar called "LUCKY'S".
Deveraux and Scott are sent in to dispatch several of the terrorists,
with Deveraux using efficient means, but Scott using excessive force.
Their camera feeds sent back to the command post garners concern with
the project technicians, suggesting that despite being emotional blank
slates, Scott is actually enjoying it. As the UniSols infiltrate the
area, they demonstrate their superior training and physical abilities,
as one of them (Ralf Moeller as GR74) is shown surviving close-range
automatic gunfire.
After the area is secured, Deveraux begins to regain memory from his
former life after seeing two of the hostages who resemble the
villagers he tried to save back in Vietnam. Turning around, he looks
upon the face of Scott (who is also experiencing the same memory) but
as a Unisol, he doesn't say anything. This causes him to ignore radio
commands from the control team.
Back in the mobile command center, the Unisol technician team are
trying to figure out what happened at the Hoover Dam incident. They
reveal that the UniSols have enhanced healing abilities and superior
strength but also have a tendency to overheat and shut down. It is
also revealed that they are given a neural serum to keep their minds
under control and their previous memories suppressed. All of the
UniSols are then ordered to go back into their cooling units and
inject themselves with the serum. As a result of the glitch, Woodward
(Leon Rippy), one of the technicians on the project, feels it may be
better to remove Scott and Deveraux from the team until they can be
further analyzed. But Colonel Perry (Ed O'Ross), the commander in
charge, tells them that the mission will proceed as planned.
TV news journalist Veronica Roberts (Ally Walker) is attempting to get
a story on the UniSol project in an attempt to be reinstated at her
job, having previously been fired while covering the Hoover Dam
incident. After speaking with representatives from the project, she
receives evasive answers. She later sneaks onto the base with a camera
to investigate the project further only to discover the body of a
damaged UniSol who appears to be fatally wounded, but is still alive.
While attempting to escape, Deveraux and Scott are ordered to bring
her back. She escapes to the car of her cameraman, but when the
Unisols pursue, they cause the car to crash and overturn. Scott
mercilessly executes the cameraman and Deveraux again intervenes,
preventing him from shooting Roberts. They both escape in a UniSol
vehicle.
After escaping, Scott mumbles to himself softly about Deveraux being a
traitor, but none of the Unisol team realize it. Colonel Perry
resolves to chase the reporter and Deveraux across country to prevent
knowledge of the UniSols from getting out, not only to the public, but
to the American government, as the nature of project is unknown by the
Pentagon.
As Deveraux and Roberts hide out and attempt to get evidence of the
UniSol program to the media, Roberts turns on the television to learn
that she is now being framed for the murder of her cameraman. As the
UniSol team is dispatched, Scott's previous personality begins to
emerge, causing him to kill innocents. As the technicians realize what
is happening, they attempt to stop him, only to be killed themselves.
Scott then takes over the rest of the UniSol team.
Deveraux and Roberts travel around as Roberts tries to dig up more
information about the UniSol program. They meet Dr. Gregor (Jerry
Orbach), the originator of the program, who reveals the history of the
project. Deveraux learns more of his past and wants to go home to meet
his family in Louisiana.
After Deveraux reunites with his family, Scott tracks them down and
takes his family and Roberts hostage. A brutal fight ensues with Scott
beating Deveraux mercilessly due to the muscle enhancers he has.
Roberts manages to escape from her bonds only to be seemingly killed
by a grenade thrown by Scott. Scott continues to dominate Deveraux
until he gets a hold of the muscle enhancers Scott uses and injects
himself with one. Deveraux starts fighting back due to his new
strength and manages to impale Scott on the spikes of a hay harvester.
Deveraux then finishes Scott by starting the machine up which grinds
him up. Finally, Deveraux checks on Roberts, who survived the
explosion though wounded and the two embrace.
Post by mrliu918
Are you serious?
There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.
However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century. Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.
If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .
If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.
Sincerely
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Warhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980
1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC
1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel
1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory
1959 - 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam
1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-06-25 04:59:57 UTC
Permalink
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia....

Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980

1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC

1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel

1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory

1959 - 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam

1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.

USA VS USSR & communist block in propaganda and in reality.

Quotation from wikipedia and other sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_IV
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambo:_First_Blood_Part_II
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambo_III
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Soldier_(1992_film)


Rocky IV
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For the soundtrack to the movie, see Rocky IV (album).
This article needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references.
Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2007)
Rocky IV


Theatrical Release Poster
Directed by Sylvester Stallone
Produced by Robert Chartoff
Irwin Winkler
Written by Sylvester Stallone
Starring Sylvester Stallone
Talia Shire
Burt Young
Carl Weathers
Tony Burton
Brigitte Nielsen
Dolph Lundgren
Music by Vince DiCola
Themes by
Bill Conti
Cinematography Bill Butler
Editing by John W. Wheeler
Don Zimmerman
Studio United Artists
Distributed by MGM/UA Entertainment Co. (USA)
United International Pictures (Non-USA)
Release date(s) November 27, 1985
Running time 90 min
Country United States
Language English
Russian
Budget US$ 31,000,000
Preceded by Rocky III
Followed by Rocky V


Rocky IV is a 1985 boxing film, the fourth and most financially
successful movie of the Rocky franchise. [1] Rocky Balboa (played
again by Sylvester Stallone), plans to retire from boxing after
regaining his title from James "Clubber" Lang in Rocky III. An
unknown
amateur boxer from the Soviet Union, Ivan Drago (played by Dolph
Lundgren), however, makes a bid to enter the U.S. boxing ranks. After
an exhibition match with Apollo Creed goes horribly and tragically
wrong, Rocky must step in and challenge the Russian boxer himself to
avenge the passing of his friend.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
2.1 Casting
2.2 Music
3 Reception
3.1 U.S. Box Office
3.2 Worldwide box office performance
4 Awards
5 References
6 External links


[edit] Plot
The story opens with "Eye of the Tiger" during the climax of Rocky's
rematch against Clubber Lang, where Rocky defeated Lang with a KO in
the third round to regain his title. The picture then fades and we
see
Apollo Creed presenting his favor to Rocky shortly after the Lang
fight for helping him train. Meanwhile, Ivan Drago (Dolph Lundgren),
a
highly intimidating 6 feet 5, 260 pound Soviet boxer, arrives in
America with his wife Ludmilla (Brigitte Nielsen), an Olympic gold
medal swimmer, his manager, Nicolai Koloff (Michael Pataki), and a
team of trainers headed by grizzled Russian coach Igor Rimsky (George
Rogan), and the Cuban Manuel Vega (James "Cannonball" Green) to
challenge the best American fighters. His manager takes great pride
in
showing off the hi-tech equipment which aids in improving Drago's
performance. As a demonstration, Drago throws punches at a machine
that measures the hit's strength, exceeding 1800 psi per punch.
Motivated by patriotism and a desire to prove himself, Apollo is
desperate to step back into the ring in an exhibition bout against
Drago. Rocky has reservations, but comes round to supporting his
friend by helping to train him for the fight. Apollo sets the match
between himself and Drago in Las Vegas. With Rocky in his corner,
Apollo flamboyantly makes an even bigger show than when he first
fought Rocky - including fireworks and a patriotic theme. Starting
the
fight in his trademark manner, Drago manages to catch him off-guard
quickly and batters Apollo with a series of devastating punches. At
the break, Rocky pleads with Apollo to quit the fight, but Apollo is
determined to finish, which only leads to tragedy when he collapses
and dies after he hits the canvas from Drago's continuous blows.
Rocky Balboa (Sylvester Stallone) faces up to Ivan Drago (Dolph
Lundgren) in Rocky IV
Devastated by the death of Apollo, Rocky comes to the decision he
must
avenge his death by agreeing to fight Drago in his home country.
Supported by Apollo's manager Duke and his brother-in-law Paulie, he
flies to the Soviet Union to train. Unlike Drago, who is attached to
electrodes, is constantly monitored by computers, and works out with
ultra hi-tech equipment (and what are implied to be anabolic
steroids), Rocky gets down to business carrying logs; chopping wood
and pulling a sleigh. When Adrian shows up unexpectedly, providing
more reason to succeed, Rocky trains harder than ever, and ends his
training run by running up to the top of a mountain and screaming
Drago's name. After intense preparation for both fighters, the two
men
finally meet in the ring.
Much like Apollo did in the previous fight, the Soviets introduce
Drago with an elaborate, patriotic ceremony that puts the attending
audience squarely on the side of Drago, leaving Rocky to be fiercely
booed. In contrast to his fight with Apollo, Drago immediately goes
on
the offensive, repeatedly pounding Rocky, knocking him 15 feet across
the ring on one occasion, and casually shrugging off his punches.
After a pulverizing first round, with Drago easily winning, Rocky
comes back toward the end of the second and lands a shot that cuts
Drago just below his eye.
The injury is just what Rocky needs, as he and his corner realise
that
Drago is just a man. Meanwhile, Drago, shaken by his injury regards
Rocky as inhuman. At this point, the fight becomes a fierce battle of
wills between the two boxers. Drago's confidence drops round after
round due to Rocky's seemingly limitless endurance, allowing Rocky to
get in under his guard and pound him relentlessly. By the fourteenth
round, the crowd has been won over by Rocky's determination and is
cheering him on. Koloff, fearing retribution from the Soviet Premier,
goes over to Drago and berates his performance, telling him to win.
Drago's response is to pick up Koloff by the throat, and proclaim
that
he only fights for himself.
In the final round of the fight, Rocky and Drago trade punch after
punch. Eventually, Balboa manages to overcome Drago knocking him out,
to the shock of Soviet premier (who strongly resembles the then
Soviet
leader Mikhail Gorbachev) and his aides who have no option but to
applaud Rocky for fear of backlash. Following his victory, Rocky
gives
an impassioned speech to the crowd, acknowledging their initial and
mutual disdain for each other, and how they've come to respect and
admire each other during the fight.


Rambo: First Blood Part II
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Rambo: First Blood Part II


Rambo: First Blood Part II movie poster
Directed by George P. Cosmatos
Sylvester Stallone (uncredited)[1]
Produced by Buzz Feitshans
Written by Screenplay:
Sylvester Stallone
James Cameron
Story:
Kevin Jarre
Characters:
David Morrell
Starring Sylvester Stallone
Richard Crenna
Charles Napier
Steven Berkoff
Julia Nickson-Soul
Music by Jerry Goldsmith
Peter Schless
Cinematography Jack Cardiff
Editing by Larry Bock
Mark Goldblatt
Mark Helfrich
Gib Jaffe
Frank E. Jiminez
Distributed by TriStar Pictures
Release date(s) May 22, 1985
Running time 94 min.
Country United States
Language English
Budget $44,000,000 (est.)
Gross revenue Domestic:
$150,415,432
Worldwide:
$300,400,432
Preceded by First Blood (1982)
Followed by Rambo III (1988)


Rambo: First Blood Part II (also known as Rambo II or First Blood
Part
II in other countries), is a 1985 second movie in the Rambo series,
starring Sylvester Stallone as Vietnam veteran John Rambo. Picking up
where the first film left, this sequel is set in the context of the
Vietnam War POW/MIA issue; it sees Rambo released from prison by
Federal order to document the possible existence of POWs in Vietnam,
under the belief that he will find nothing, thus enabling the
government to sweep the issue under the rug.
Rambo: First Blood Part II was ghost-directed by George P. Cosmatos,
who later directed the movie Cobra with Sylvester Stallone and
Brigitte Nielsen. It was later revealed that Stallone had most of the
directorial control on First Blood.[1]
Rambo: First Blood Part II follows First Blood and was followed by
Rambo III in 1988 and Rambo in 2008.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
3 Critical and commercial reception
4 Awards
5 Other media
6 References
7 External links


[edit] Plot
Rambo is busy working in a labor camp prison, when he gets a visit
from his former commander, Colonel Samuel Trautman (Richard Crenna).
Trautman offers Rambo the chance to be released from prison after the
events of the first film and given full clemency, but on condition of
him going into Vietnam to search for American POWs. Rambo meets
Marshal Murdock (Charles Napier), an American bureaucrat who is in
charge of the operation and he tells Rambo that the American public
is
demanding knowledge about the POWs and they want a trained commando
to
go in and search for the POWs. However, Rambo is briefed that he is
only to photograph the POWs and not to rescue them, nor is he to
engage any enemy soldiers. Rambo reluctantly agrees and he is then
told that an agent of the American government will be there to
receive
him in the jungles of Vietnam.
He is then parachuted into the Vietnamese jungles, however while
parachuting, Rambo loses some of his equipment and is left only with
his knives, his bow, and arrows. He meets the American agent, a girl
named Co (Julia Nickson) who wants to go to America. Rambo comes to
the camp and finds American POWs there, and he rescues one of them.
He, Co and the American POW are in a boat when a gunboat attacks
them,
Rambo however sends Co and the POW to safety and manages to destroy
the gunboat with an RPG. When Rambo calls for extraction, he is
denied
as Murdock fears what will happen to him and his party if the
American
public come to know about it.
Rambo and the American POW are captured. He learns that the Soviet
Army is aiding the Vietnamese and training them, and is tortured
badly
by a Soviet officer, Lt. Col. Podovsky (Steven Berkoff) and his
robust
henchman Sergeant Yushin. Rambo is ordered to contact the American
military and tell them that they should not send any more commandos
for rescue operations in Vietnam. Meanwhile, Co enters the camp in
the
guise of a prostitute and comes to the hut in which Rambo is held
captive. Rambo then agrees to Podovsky's condition, but instead
threatens Murdock on the radio that he is coming to get him, then
escapes from captivity into a nearby jungle with Co's help. Co then
tends to Rambo's wounds and begins to implore him to take her to the
United States. Rambo agrees and they share a kiss. But then, some
Vietnamese soldiers attack them and Co is killed. Rambo kills them
all
and then he buries Co's body in the jungles, promising to never
forget
her and deeply saddened by the romance that was never meant to be.
Following his escape, many Soviet and Vietnamese soldiers are looking
for him. Rambo assembles his weapons, and using guerilla warfare
tactics, is able to kill a large number of enemy troops. He then
proceeds to a small enemy camp and destroys it and several vehicles
with explosive arrows. He then hijacks a UH-1N Twin Huey helicopter
from the Soviets after killing Sergeant Yushin and proceeds towards
the POW camp. He destroys most of the camp with the helicopter, then
lands and arms himself with the M60 machine gun that is mounted on
the
Huey, kills the remaining soldiers, and rescues all the POWs. They
get
to the helicopter and move towards the American camp in Thailand.
However, Lt. Col. Podovsky chases them in his Mil Mi-24 helicopter
gunship. Although Rambo's helicopter is heavily damaged by Podovsky's
helicopter, he manages to go forward and descending his helicopter on
a river, fakes his death, as soon as Podovsky comes near him and gets
careless, Rambo gets up and fires an LAW at Podovsky's chopper,
obliterating it.
Rambo then returns to the base and using the M60E3 machine gun from
the Huey destroys Murdock's command center. He then unsheathes his
knife and threatens Murdock to find and rescue the remaining American
POWs in Vietnam. Trautman then comforts Rambo and tries to pacify
him.
Rambo however gets angry and says that he only wants his country to
love its soldiers as much as its soldiers love it. Rambo then moves
towards an unknown destination. Trautman asks him: "How will you
live,
John?" To which Rambo replies: "Day by Day." The film credits roll as
Rambo walks off into the distance while his mentor watches him.


Rambo III
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the film. For the video game, see Rambo III
(video game).
Rambo III


Rambo III movie poster
Directed by Peter MacDonald
Produced by Buzz Feitshans
Mario Kassar
Andrew G. Vajna
Written by Screenplay:
Sylvester Stallone
Sheldon Lettich
Characters:
David Morrell
Starring Sylvester Stallone
Richard Crenna
Marc de Jonge
Kurtwood Smith
Sasson Gabai
Music by Jerry Goldsmith
Distributed by TriStar Pictures
Release date(s) May 25, 1988
Running time 101 min.
Country United States
Language English
Budget $65,000,000 (est.)
Gross revenue Domestic:
$53,715,611
Worldwide:
$189,015,611
Preceded by Rambo: First Blood Part II (1985)
Followed by Rambo (2008)


Rambo III (also known as First Blood Part III in Malaysia) is a 1988
American action film released on May 25, 1988. It is the third film
in
the Rambo series following First Blood and Rambo: First Blood Part
II.
It was in turn followed by Rambo in 2008.
Contents
[hide]
1 Plot
2 Production
3 Other media
4 References
5 External links


[edit] Plot
The film opens with Colonel Samuel Trautman (Richard Crenna)
returning
to Thailand (where the second film took place) to once again enlist
the help of Vietnam veteran John J. Rambo (Sylvester Stallone). After
witnessing Rambo's victory in a stick-fighting match, Trautman visits
the construction site of the temple Rambo is helping to build and
asks
Rambo to join him on a mission to Afghanistan. The mission is meant
to
supply weapons, including FIM-92 Stinger missiles, to Afghan rebels,
the Mujahideen, who are fighting the Soviets in the Soviet-Afghan
War.
Despite showing him photos of civilians suffering under Soviet
military intervention, Rambo refuses and Trautman chooses to go on
his
own.
While in Afghanistan, Trautman's troops are ambushed by Soviet troops
while passing through the mountains at night. Trautman is imprisoned
in a Soviet base and coerced for information by Colonel Zaysen (Marc
de Jonge) and his henchman Kourov (Randy Raney). Rambo learns of the
incident from embassy field officer Robert Griggs (Kurtwood Smith)
and
convinces Griggs to take him through an unofficial operation, despite
Grigg's warning that the U.S. government will deny any knowledge of
his actions if killed or caught. Rambo immediately flies to Pakistan
where he meets up with Mousa (Sasson Gabai), a weapons supplier who
agrees to take him to a village deep in the Afghan desert, close to
the Soviet base where Trautman is kept. The Mujahideen in the village
are already hesitant to help Rambo in the first place, but are
definitely convinced not to help him when their village is attacked
by
Soviet helicopters after one of Mousa's shop assistants has informed
the Soviets of Rambo's presence. Aided only by Mousa and a young boy
named Hamid (Doudi Shoua), Rambo makes his way to the Soviet base and
starts his attempts to free Trautman. The first attempt is
unsuccessful and results not only in Hamid getting shot in the leg,
but also in Rambo himself getting wood shrapnel in the side. After
escaping from the base, Rambo tends to Hamid's wounds and sends him
and Mousa away to safety.
The next day, Rambo returns to the base once again, just in time to
rescue Trautman from being tortured with a blow-torch. After rescuing
several other prisoners, Rambo steals a helicopter and escapes from
the base. However, the helicopter soon crashes and Rambo and Trautman
are forced to continue on foot. After a confrontation in a cave,
where
Rambo and Trautman eliminate several Soviet Spetsnaz commandos
including Kourov, they are confronted by an entire army of Soviet
tanks, headed by Zaysen. Just as they are about to be overwhelmed by
the might of the Red Army, the Mujahideen warriors, together with
Mousa and Hamid, ride onto the battlefield by the hundreds in a
cavalry charge, overwhelming the Communists. In the ensuing battle,
in
which both Trautman and John are wounded, Rambo manages to kill
Zaysen
by driving a tank into the Russian's helicopter. Rambo survives the
explosion and gets out of the tank. At the end of the battle Rambo
and
Trautman say goodbye to their Mujahideen friends and leave
Afghanistan
to go home.
[edit] Production
The film's domestic box office gross was $53,715,611, which was about
$11 million lower than its overall budget. However, it received a
large worldwide gross of $189,015,611, or $135,300,000
internationally, excluding revenue from video rentals. Some critics
note that the timing of the movie, with its unabashedly anti-Soviet
tone, ran afoul of the opening of Communism to the West under Mikhail
Gorbachev, which had already changed the image of the Soviet Union to
a substantial degree by the time the movie was finished.[1]
The 1990 Guinness World Records deemed Rambo III the most violent
film
ever made, with 221 acts of violence, at least 70 explosions, and
over
108 characters killed on-screen. However, the body count of the
fourth
film in the series, Rambo, surpassed that record, with 261 kills.
The Mi-24 Hind-D helicopters seen in the film are in fact modified A$Bb^(B
rospatiale SA 330 Puma transport helicopters with fabricated bolt-on
wings similar to the real Hind-Ds which were mainly used in the
former
Soviet bloc nations. The other helicopter depicted is a slightly
reshaped Aerospatiale Gazelle.
An extensive film score was written by Oscar-winning American
composer
Jerry Goldsmith; however, much of it was not used. Instead, much of
the music Goldsmith penned for the previous installment was recycled.
The original CD/LP contained only a portion of the new music. A more
complete 75-minute version of the score was released years later.
According to a report by the CBC's The Fifth Estate, trip wires were
used to bring down the horses, causing some accusations of animal
cruelty.[2]
The film is dedicated to "the gallant people of Afghanistan."


Universal Soldier (1992 film)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Universal Soldier.
Universal Soldier


Theatrical release poster
Directed by Roland Emmerich
Produced by Mario Kassar
Allen Shapiro
Written by Richard Rothstein
Christopher Leitch
Dean Devlin
Starring Jean-Claude Van Damme
Dolph Lundgren
Ally Walker
Ed O'Ross
Cinematography Karl Walter Lindenlaub
Editing by Michael J. Duthie
Distributed by TriStar Pictures
Release date(s) July 10, 1992
Running time 102 min.
Language English
Budget $23,000,000
(estimated)
Followed by Universal Soldier II: Brothers in Arms


Universal Soldier is a 1992 science fiction film, directed by Roland
Emmerich, and starring Jean-Claude Van Damme and Dolph Lundgren as
soldiers who kill each other in Vietnam but are reanimated in a
secret
Army project along with a large group of other previously dead
soldiers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Production
2 Plot
3 Casting
4 Alternate ending
5 Reception
6 External links


[edit] Production
The film was followed by two television movie sequels in 1998 --
Universal Soldier II: Brothers in Arms and Universal Soldier III:
Unfinished Business -- with an all new cast.
In 1999, a theatrical sequel, Universal Soldier: The Return, ignored
the television films, with only Van Damme returning from the original
film.
This was the last film encoded in Cinema Digital Sound.
Deveraux's code number GR44 is a reference to director Roland
Emmerich's first film Moon 44.
Most of the film was shot in Arizona. The Vietnamese jungle and
village scenes were shot on a golf course in Clarkdale, Arizona. Some
exterior scenes were shot on location at the Hoover Dam and
Clarkdale,
Arizona.
At the 1992 Cannes film festival, Van Damme and Lundgren were
involved
in a verbal altercation that almost turned physical when both men
pushed each other only to be separated. On his website, Dolph
Lundgren
confirmed that it was just a publicity stunt to promote the film.
Universal Soldier is Rated R for strong graphic violence and for
strong language.
The original script included a voice-over announcement that Devereaux
had died several days after the end of the film.
[edit] Plot
Near the end of the United States' involvement in the Vietnam War, an
American military squad receives orders to secure a village against
North Vietnamese forces. Pvt. Luc Deveraux (Jean-Claude Van Damme)
comes to find the members of his squad and various villagers dead
with
their ears missing. His comrade in arms, Sgt. Andrew Scott (Dolph
Lundgren) is the cause of this, having gone murderously insane.
Deveraux finds that Scott, while holding up a string of severed ears,
is also holding a young boy and girl hostage. Deveraux tries to
reason
with Scott, saying that the war is over. Scott becomes infuriated and
shoots the boy in front of him, then orders Deveraux to shoot the
girl
in order to prove his loyalty.
Deveraux refuses and stops Scott from shooting the girl. The girl
attempts to escape, but Scott throws a grenade at her, killing her.
Luc and Scott shoot each other and both are killed. The next morning,
a U.S. Special Forces squad finds their bodies and the commanding
officer of the squad gives the medics orders to "bag their bodies in
ice."
Jumping to modern day, terrorists have taken over the Hoover Dam and
the police agencies are ordered not to intervene or make any attempt
to rescue the hostages. Instead, the Universal Soldiers (or
"UniSols"), an elite counter terrorism unit, are called with Deveraux
(now designated "GR44") and Scott (now designated "GR13") among this
team. They apparently have been revived with no memory of their
previous lives. Deveraux has flashbacks of his previous life,
including a deleted scene in which he meets a Vietnamese bar girl at
a
Vietnamese bar called "LUCKY'S".
Deveraux and Scott are sent in to dispatch several of the terrorists,
with Deveraux using efficient means, but Scott using excessive force.
Their camera feeds sent back to the command post garners concern with
the project technicians, suggesting that despite being emotional
blank
slates, Scott is actually enjoying it. As the UniSols infiltrate the
area, they demonstrate their superior training and physical
abilities,
as one of them (Ralf Moeller as GR74) is shown surviving close-range
automatic gunfire.
After the area is secured, Deveraux begins to regain memory from his
former life after seeing two of the hostages who resemble the
villagers he tried to save back in Vietnam. Turning around, he looks
upon the face of Scott (who is also experiencing the same memory) but
as a Unisol, he doesn't say anything. This causes him to ignore radio
commands from the control team.
Back in the mobile command center, the Unisol technician team are
trying to figure out what happened at the Hoover Dam incident. They
reveal that the UniSols have enhanced healing abilities and superior
strength but also have a tendency to overheat and shut down. It is
also revealed that they are given a neural serum to keep their minds
under control and their previous memories suppressed. All of the
UniSols are then ordered to go back into their cooling units and
inject themselves with the serum. As a result of the glitch, Woodward
(Leon Rippy), one of the technicians on the project, feels it may be
better to remove Scott and Deveraux from the team until they can be
further analyzed. But Colonel Perry (Ed O'Ross), the commander in
charge, tells them that the mission will proceed as planned.
TV news journalist Veronica Roberts (Ally Walker) is attempting to
get
a story on the UniSol project in an attempt to be reinstated at her
job, having previously been fired while covering the Hoover Dam
incident. After speaking with representatives from the project, she
receives evasive answers. She later sneaks onto the base with a
camera
to investigate the project further only to discover the body of a
damaged UniSol who appears to be fatally wounded, but is still alive.
While attempting to escape, Deveraux and Scott are ordered to bring
her back. She escapes to the car of her cameraman, but when the
Unisols pursue, they cause the car to crash and overturn. Scott
mercilessly executes the cameraman and Deveraux again intervenes,
preventing him from shooting Roberts. They both escape in a UniSol
vehicle.
After escaping, Scott mumbles to himself softly about Deveraux being
a
traitor, but none of the Unisol team realize it. Colonel Perry
resolves to chase the reporter and Deveraux across country to prevent
knowledge of the UniSols from getting out, not only to the public,
but
to the American government, as the nature of project is unknown by
the
Pentagon.
As Deveraux and Roberts hide out and attempt to get evidence of the
UniSol program to the media, Roberts turns on the television to learn
that she is now being framed for the murder of her cameraman. As the
UniSol team is dispatched, Scott's previous personality begins to
emerge, causing him to kill innocents. As the technicians realize
what
is happening, they attempt to stop him, only to be killed themselves.
Scott then takes over the rest of the UniSol team.
Deveraux and Roberts travel around as Roberts tries to dig up more
information about the UniSol program. They meet Dr. Gregor (Jerry
Orbach), the originator of the program, who reveals the history of
the
project. Deveraux learns more of his past and wants to go home to
meet
his family in Louisiana.
After Deveraux reunites with his family, Scott tracks them down and
takes his family and Roberts hostage. A brutal fight ensues with
Scott
beating Deveraux mercilessly due to the muscle enhancers he has.
Roberts manages to escape from her bonds only to be seemingly killed
by a grenade thrown by Scott. Scott continues to dominate Deveraux
until he gets a hold of the muscle enhancers Scott uses and injects
himself with one. Deveraux starts fighting back due to his new
strength and manages to impale Scott on the spikes of a hay
harvester.
Deveraux then finishes Scott by starting the machine up which grinds
him up. Finally, Deveraux checks on Roberts, who survived the
explosion though wounded and the two embrace.
Post by mrliu918
Are you serious?
There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.
However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century. Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.
If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .
If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.
Sincerely
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasionhttp://en.wikipedia....
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980
1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC
1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel
1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory
1959 - 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam
1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
Chairman MaObama
2009-06-18 05:31:54 UTC
Permalink
Beat it communist Obama supporter!


"mrliu918" <***@gmail.com> wrote in message news:2628605d-7e0e-44e0-8b72-***@x29g2000prf.googlegroups.com...
Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon

Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980

1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC

1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel

1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba

1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory

1959 – 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam

1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
mrliu918
2009-07-25 08:43:13 UTC
Permalink
Release statements concerning Bruce Lee family & Leung's family
Other informatio on turning point of US policy in East Europe, Middle
East, Cuba and the rest of the world:

CNN Political Ticker: All politics, all the time Blog
Archive ...
Biden: U.S. intends to meet Iraq withdrawal timetable ... (CNN) — The
U.S.
government intends to have all its troops out of Iraq by the end ...
http://politicalticker.blogs.cnn.com/2009/07/05/biden-u-s-intends-to-meet-iraq-w...
TRANSCRIPT: Remarks of President Obama in Cairo
http://www.foxnews.com/politics/2009/06/04/transcript-remarks-president-obama-cairo/
Obama Lifting Cuba Travel Restrictions
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/04/13/some-cuba-travel-restrict_n_186197.html
Obama eases Cuba travel restrictions - CNN.com
Obama eases Cuba travel restrictions. Story Highlights; Restrictions
lifted on
travel to see relatives in Cuba, send remittances ...
http://www.cnn.com/2009/POLITICS/04/13/cuba.travel/index.html
Obama to tell Putin: Time to move past Cold War
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20090707/ap_on_go_pr_wh/obama
http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/us_obama_ap_interview

Release statements concerning Lee and Leung

Unless there are proof of DNA connection, all friendship with Bruce
Lee family and Leung's family, if any in past, was officially over in
2008.

Becareful of doping Lee and chemical Leung (aka Liang)!

Despite more than ten years of sleep deprivation, I am fortunate to
survive several assassination attempts and more than hundred rounds of
brutal assault recently. Lee's fan shamelss proclaimed over the phone
many years ago: "let Liu's boy take the most dangerous job and assume
all the risk of fatality."

After the car accident between 2003 to 2005, I am still capable of
writing article and poem despite brain injure. Lee cheat me to
hosipital and poison me with drug in 2008. Because of medical
malpractice with malicious intent, I barely walk and talk for a long
period of time.

Release statements concerning the role of "lion" in 1990

"The lion" try his best to reduce US casualties by avoiding urban
warfare.

Answer to public concern about the size of special force and the army
divison responsible for killing more than 30000 Iraqi Republican
guards within days.

In the past 15 years, I have been receiving phone calls and other
means of harassment concerning whether the special force unit in Gulf
War is a one man show and only true in propaganda. The stalkers and
spy oftens concern about the number of special force units capable of
doing the job and the identity of those served in the special force
units. They also concern about members of special force involving in
killing the tigers and other predators.

They expressed strong interest particularly in the bullet proof vest
that are capable of stopping AK-47 bullets in good range.

My answer regarding this questions in the past 15 years is
consistent.

The special force in Gulf War is true only in propaganda and is a one
man show. Not even Olympic boxing champion is confident enough to
knocked out tigers, lions, bears, panthers and other wild predators.

Answer to public concern about technology of US bullet proof vest and
the killing of tiger, bear and other predators in the 1990 incident.

Correction and updates of the 1990 incident:

US army bullet proof vest was used when I killed one of the tiger with
barehanded in the 1990 incident. I also killed a brown bear with
barehanded in order to save other participants and observers.

I was a consultant on the diplomatic list at the time. I do not
believe it would ever happened, but I did everything to save other
participants.

They should contact US army for infomrmation on the bullet proof vest.

"The lion" broadcasted the tape recording in Middle East and did his
best to to reduce American casualties by avoiding hand to hand combat
and close range combat in urban warfare.

Lee and Leung are garbage generals in modern warfare.

Other than their track record of failure in modern warfare, Leung (aka
Liang) and Lee ( aka Li) are thieves of the century in professional
boxing ?

Do not participate in underground ring and do not fight for the cheap
thief.

Sincerely

Yu Fung Liu

--------------------------------------------------------------

The freewill to seek courage in La Marseillaise


The scene of Japanese butterflies (Lee and Leung) gang raping a girl
in public simply sicken me.

Those Frenchmen rushing to rescue were betrayed by English Canadian
in
British Canada; they were poisoned, shipped to Japan and mostly
likely
being massacred on street They might be forced to fight to their
death
alone without alliance and aid; but their soul will return home.

I am surprise on how Frenchmen can put up with the betrayal and
tyranny of English Canadian.

I will be happy to work with you and fight for you after Quebec
declare independence or is no longer a part of Canada.


May the soul of La Marseillaise and the spirit of Statue of Liberty
be
with you.


Are you serious?


There is no doubt that the fight between 28 years old three-time
European champion Zbigniew Pietrzykowski near retirement age and 18
years old Muhammad Ali in 1960 Olympic game is not the best match on
equal footing other than its racial significance.


However, I doubt your sincerity given the fact that many of you are
lovers of cheap labor and slavery for century. Are you capable of
defeating someone worth challenging in the ring and in war without
relying on African, or it is a matter of the past at the time of
Sparta and Roman Empire. Note that you have been losing most war and
fights in Olympic between 1945 to 1980. Your vulnerability to
communist military might for half century is a matter of fact and
future reality.


If I have to end up the same way like the white boxer in Mississippi
Burning or Saint Joan of Arc (French: Jeanne d'Arc) after I am no
longer needed, I would be better off to risk myself for something
else
for the sake of comparative advantage. Both the white boxer and Saint
Joan of Arc were betrayed by their own kind despite they claimed one
victory after another for the people they fought for. I an sure that
they will not be the last one in your history. If you can betray GM,
UAW and Saint Joan of Arc, everything is on sales as far as you
concern. You are in no position to challenge anyone in the name of
honor. .


If this is just another scheme, you pick the wrong person. Here is my
current situation. I don't have any money for you.


Doping Lee(aka Li and chemical Leung (aka Liang) - symtptoms of
chemical and biological weapon

Becareful of doping Lee and chemical Leung (aka Liang)! symtptoms of
chemical and biological weapon


Quotation about identification and treatment for chemical and
biological weapon from Taiwanese magazine and wikipedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731


軍事家觀察站
台灣陸軍化學兵學校


毒劑的種類和辨識


1 刺激性毒劑中毒時:眼睛流淚,疼痛,流鼻涕,咳嗽,呼吸困難,皮膚刺痛等癥狀。
2 癱瘓性毒劑中毒時: 心理失常, 暈眩, 嘔吐, 精神錯亂, 口乾舍燥, 全身疲倦,焦慮,產生恐懼感等癥狀。
3 窒息性毒劑中毒時: 流淚, 反胃, 嘔吐, 呼吸困難等癥狀。
4 感染糜爛性毒劑中毒時: 皮膚出現紅斑水泡, 傷口潰爛, 化膿等癥狀。
5 血液性毒劑中毒時: 頭暈目眩, 頭痛, 心神不安, 視力減退, 呼吸困難, 意識喪識等癥狀。
6. 精神性毒劑中毒時: 視力模糊, 瞳孔縮小, 昏迷, 呼吸困難, 惡心, 身體虛弱等癥狀。


uni-plex, cibion tab, antihist, duxaril, histaten, eurozyme tab,
ascorbic acid, paracetamol, prevachid, bronco-DM tab, acetaminophen,
amoxicillin, setamol, duxaril


化学武器的分类


化學武器戰劑可以根據何種方式影響人體大致分成幾類
種類 化學劑名稱 作用方式 症狀 作用時間 途徑及持久性
神經性毒劑 環沙林 (Cyclosarin) (GF)
沙林 (Sarin) (GB)
索曼 (Soman) (GD)
塔崩 (tabun) (GA)
VX
某些殺蟲劑
諾維喬克 (Novichok)
抑制乙醘膽鹼脢作用, 阻止 神經傳遞物質 乙醘膽鹼 在突觸的分解釋放而引發蕈毒鹼 和 尼古丁一樣作用(導致肌肉一直處於興奮狀態而引起肌肉

攣) 瞳孔放大(散瞳)
視野模糊/眼前昏暗
頭痛
噁心, 嘔吐, 腹瀉
流鼻水
四支麻痺/肌肉震顫
呼吸困難
癲癇
意識低下
蒸氣: 數秒到幾分鐘;
皮膚接觸: 2到18小時
VX 較為維持而其他戰劑較不持久;都具吸入及接觸毒性
血液性毒劑 大多數的 砷化合物
氯化氰 (CK)
氫氰酸 (AC)
砷化合物:造成溶血,可導致腎功能衰竭。
氯化氰/氫氰酸: 氰化物阻斷電子傳遞鏈,導致細胞無法利用氧氣. 迫使細胞進行厭氧呼吸, 產生過多 乳酸 而造成代謝性酸中毒.
皮膚、手指甲和嘴唇可能是粉紅色或櫻桃色
發紺
意識障礙
噁心
呼吸困難
代謝性酸中毒
立即發作 非持久性且為吸入毒性
腐爛性毒劑 芥子毒氣 (HD, H)
氮芥子氣 (Nitrogen mustard ) (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)
路易斯毒氣 (L)
光氣肟 (Phosgene oxime) (CX)
戰劑為酸性化合物損害皮膚和呼吸道系統, 造成灼傷和呼吸困難. 嚴重的皮膚,眼睛和粘膜疼痛及紅腫
皮膚紅斑與產生水泡,癒合慢,並可能成為感染
結膜充血,角膜浮腫及潰瘍
輕度呼吸窘迫引發呼吸道損害
芥子氣: 蒸氣: 4到6小時, 經眼睛或肺部會更快; 皮膚接觸: 2到48小時
路易斯毒氣: 即時
持續性且為接觸毒性
窒息性毒劑 氯氣
氯化氫
氮氧化物
光氣(CG)
類似糜爛性毒劑的機制, 但較多作用於呼吸道系統, 進而導致窒息; 痊癒者往往會有慢性呼吸困難. 呼吸道的刺激
眼睛及皮膚得燒灼感
呼吸困難, 咳嗽
喉嚨痛
胸悶
喘鳴
支氣管痙攣
即時到3小時 非持久性且為吸入毒性
刺激性毒劑/催淚性或催吐性 催淚瓦斯
胡椒噴霧
邻氯苯亚甲基丙二腈(CS)
亞當氏劑(DM)
苯氯乙酮(CN)
二苯氯砷(DA)
二苯氰砷(DC)
催淚性:造成嚴重眼睛刺痛及暫時性失明。
催淚瓦斯或胡椒噴霧:刺激眼睛造成不適
DM,DA,DC:引發嘔吐
即時 非持久性且為吸入毒性
失能性毒劑 二苯乙醇酸-3-奎寧環基酯 (BZ)
LSD
Causes atropine-like inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes
peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen
in nerve agent poisoning. 引發明顯情緒變化,幻覺等精神障礙
體溫過高
運動失調 (步伐不穩)
瞳孔放大(散瞳)
口渴
吸入: 30分鐘到20小時;
皮膚: 皮膚接觸到BZ後36小時以上. 期限通常是72到96個小時。
可持久性的存在於水中及固體表面; 具接觸性毒性
致死性毒素 生物蛋白質, 例如:


蓖麻毒素
相思子毒素(Abrin)
藉水解rRNA抑制蛋白合成 潛伏期4-8小時,之後有類似感冒的症狀
18-24小時後:
吸入: 噁心,咳嗽,呼吸困難,肺水腫
飲食: 胃腸道出血嘔吐和流血腹瀉;最終肝臟和腎臟衰竭。
4-24 小時 可經由注射或吸入及飲食 在自然環境中會快速降解


[编辑] 歷史


[edit] Classes
Chemical weapons are inert agents that come in four categories:
choking, blister, blood and nerve.[5] The agents are organized into
several categories according to the manner in which they affect the
human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from
source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents
are
as follows:


Classes of chemical weapon agents Class of agent Agent Names Mode of
Action Signs and Symptoms Rate of action Persistency
Nerve Cyclosarin (GF)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
Tabun (GA)
VX
VR
Some insecticides
Novichok agents
Inactivates enzyme acetylcholinesterase, preventing the breakdown of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the victim's synapses and
causing both muscarinic and nicotinic effects Miosis (pinpoint
pupils)
Blurred/dim vision
Headache
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Copious secretions/sweating
Muscle twitching/fasciculations
Dyspnea
Seizures
Loss of consciousness
Vapors: seconds to minutes;
Skin: 2 to 18 hours
VX is persistent and a contact hazard; other agents are non-
persistent and present mostly inhalation hazards.
Asphyxiant/Blood Most Arsines
Cyanogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Arsine: Causes intravascular hemolysis that may lead to renal
failure.
Cyanogen chloride/hydrogen cyanide: Cyanide directly prevents cells
from using oxygen. The cells then uses anaerobic respiration,
creating
excess lactic acid and metabolic acidosis.
Possible cherry-red skin
Possible cyanosis
Confusion
Nausea
Patients may gasp for air
Seizures prior to death
Metabolic acidosis
Immediate onset Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Vesicant/Blister Sulfur mustard (HD, H)
Nitrogen mustard (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)
Lewisite (L)
Phosgene oxime (CX)
Agents are acid-forming compounds that damages skin and respiratory
system, resulting burns and respiratory problems. Severe skin, eye
and
mucosal pain and irritation
Skin erythema with large fluid blisters that heal slowly and may
become infected
Tearing, conjunctivitis, corneal damage
Mild respiratory distress to marked airway damage
Mustards: Vapors: 4 to 6 hours, eyes and lungs affected more
rapidly;
Skin: 2 to 48 hours
Lewisite: Immediate
Persistent and a contact hazard.
Choking/Pulmonary Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
Nitrogen oxides
Phosgene
Similar mechanism to blister agents in that the compounds are acids
or acid-forming, but action is more pronounced in respiratory system,
flooding it and resulting in suffocation; survivors often suffer
chronic breathing problems. Airway irritation
Eye and skin irritation
Dyspnea, cough
Sore throat
Chest tightness
Wheezing
Bronchospasm
Immediate to 3 hours Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Lachrymatory agent Tear gas
Pepper spray
Causes severe stinging of the eyes and temporary blindness. Powerful
eye irritation Immediate Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Incapacitating Agent 15 (BZ)
Causes atropine-like inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes
peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen
in nerve agent poisoning. May appear as mass drug intoxication with
erratic behaviors, shared realistic and distinct hallucinations,
disrobing and confusion
Hyperthermia
Ataxia (lack of coordination)
Mydriasis (dilated pupils)
Dry mouth and skin
Inhaled: 30 minutes to 20 hours;
Skin: Up to 36 hours after skin exposure to BZ. Duration is typically
72 to 96 hours.
Extremely persistent in soil and water and on most surfaces; contact
hazard.
Cytotoxic proteins Non-living biological proteins, such as:


Ricin
Abrin
Inhibit protein synthesis Latent period of 4-8 hours, followed by
flu-
like signs and symptoms
Progress within 18-24 hours to:
Inhalation: nausea, cough, dyspnea, pulmonary edema
Ingestion: Gastrointestinal hemorrhage with emesis and bloody
diarrhea; eventual liver and kidney failure.
4-24 hours; see symptoms. Exposure by inhalation or injection causes
more pronounced signs and symptoms than exposure by ingestion Slight;
agents degrade quickly in environment


There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by
the Chemical Weapons Convention, and thus are not controlled under
the
CWC treaties. These include:
Defoliants that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic to
human beings. Some batches of Agent Orange, for instance, used by the
United States in Vietnam, contained dioxins as manufacturing
impurities. Dioxins, rather than Agent Orange itself, have long-term
cancer effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious
birth
deformities.
Incendiary or explosive chemicals (such as napalm, extensively used
by
the United States in Vietnam, or dynamite) because their destructive
effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force, and not direct
chemical action.
Viruses, bacteria, or other organisms. Their use is classified as
biological warfare. Toxins produced by living organisms are
considered
chemical weapons, although the boundary is blurry. Toxins are covered
by the Biological Weapons Convention.


[edit] Biodefense
Main article: Biodefense
[edit] Role of public health departments and disease surveillance
It is important to note that all of the classical and modern
biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception
being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly
likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or
perhaps earlier than humans.
Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known – the
anthrax
outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in
1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the
release point of the organism from a military facility in the
southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off
limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak).
Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and
veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of
an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast
majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill.
For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 - 36
hours
after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with
compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the
organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with
classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-
ray
finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive
timely reports). By making these data available to local public
health
officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate
that
more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic
treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately
high mortality of the disease.
[edit] Identification of bioweapons
The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the
national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence,
diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers
and
public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some
countries private, local, and state (province) capabilities are being
augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered
defenses against biological weapons attacks.
The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and
water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a
disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current
and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be
deliberate, multiple, and repetitive.
The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to
the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot
analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One
such
technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence
Livermore
National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in
which
fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are
attached to silver and gold nanowires. [32]
Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a
different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen",
which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an
adaptation of the ELISA, a similar widely employed immunological
technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. [33]


Cold War
After World War II, the Allies recovered German artillery shells
containing the three German nerve agents of the day (tabun, sarin,
and
soman), prompting further research into nerve agents by all of the
former Allies. Although the threat of global thermonuclear war was
foremost in the minds of most during the Cold War, both the Soviet
and
Western governments put enormous resources into developing chemical
and biological weapons.
[edit] Developments by the Western governments
In 1952, researchers in Porton Down, England, invented the VX nerve
agent but soon abandoned the project. In 1958 the British government
traded their VX technology with the United States in exchange for
information on thermonuclear weapons; by 1961 the U.S. was producing
large amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. This
research produced at least three more agents; the four agents (VE,
VG,
VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve
agents.
Also in 1952 the U.S. Army patented a process for the "Preparation of
Toxic Ricin", publishing a method of producing this powerful toxin.
During the 1960s, the U.S. explored the use of anticholinergic
deleriant incapacitating agents. One of these agents, assigned the
weapon designation BZ, was allegedly used experimentally in the
Vietnam War. These allegations inspired the 1990 fictional film
Jacob's Ladder.
In 1961 and 62 the Kennedy administration authorized the use of
chemicals to destroy vegetation and food crops in South Vietnam.
Between 1961 and 1967 the US Air Force sprayed 12 million US gallons
of concentrated herbicides, mainly Agent Orange (containing dioxin as
an impurity in the manufacturing process) over 6 million acres
(24,000
km²) of foliage and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South
Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicides were sprayed over food
crops. Besides destroying vegetation used as cover by the NLF and
destroying food crops the herbicide was used to drive civilians into
RVN-controlled areas.[36]
In 1997, an article published by the Wall Street Journal reported
that
up to half a million children were born with dioxin related
deformities, and that the birth defects in South Vietnam were
fourfold
those in the North. The use of Agent Orange may have been contrary to
international rules of war at the time. It is also of note that the
most likely victims of such an assault would be small children. A
1967
study by the Agronomy Section of the Japanese Science Council
concluded that 3.8 million acres (15,000 km²) of land had been
destroyed, killing 1000 peasants and 13,000 livestock.
Between 1967 and 1968, the U.S. decided to dispose of obsolete
chemical weapons in an operation called Operation CHASE, which stood
for "cut holes and sink 'em." Several shiploads of chemical and
conventional weapons were put aboard old Liberty ships and sunk at
sea.
In 1969, 23 U.S. servicemen and one U.S. civilian stationed in
Okinawa, Japan, were exposed to low levels of the nerve agent sarin
while repainting the depots' buildings. The weapons had been kept
secret from Japan, sparking a furor in that country and an
international incident. These munitions were moved in 1971 to
Johnston
Atoll under Operation Red Hat.


George H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev signing the bilateral treaty
on
1990-06-01
A UN working group began work on chemical disarmament in 1980. On
April 4, 1984, U.S. President Ronald Reagan called for an
international ban on chemical weapons. U.S. President George H.W.
Bush
and Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev signed a bilateral treaty
on
June 1, 1990, to end chemical weapon production and start destroying
each of their nation's stockpiles. The multilateral Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) was signed in 1993 and entered into force (EIF) in
1997.
In December, 2001, the United States Department of Health and Human
Services, CDC, NIOSH, National Personal Protective Technology
Laboratory (NPPTL), along with the U.S. Army Research, Development
Engineering Command Edgewood Chemical/Biological Center (ECBC), and
the U.S. Department of Commerce National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST) published the first of six technical performance
standards and test procedures designed to evaluate and certify
respirators intended for use by civilian emergency responders to a
chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapon release,
detonation, or terrorism incident. To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published
six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach
that relies on traditional industrial respirator certification
policy,
next generation emergency response respirator performance
requirements, and special live chemical warfare agent testing
requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer
respiratory protection against chemical, biological, radiological,
and
nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards. These CBRN respirators are
commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus
(CBRN SCBA), air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR), air-purifying
escape
respirator (CBRN APER), self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER)
and loose or tight fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN
PAPR). Current NIOSH-approved/certified CBRN respirator concept
standards and test procedures can be found at the webpage:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/standardsdev/cbrn/
[edit] United States Senate Report
A 1994 United States Senate Report, entitled "Is military research
hazardous to veterans health? Lessons spanning a half century,"[37]
detailed the United States Department of Defense's practice of
experimenting on animal and human subjects, often without their
knowledge or consent. This included:
Approximately 60,000 [US] military personnel were used as human
subjects in the 1940s to test the chemical agents mustard gas and
lewisite. "Mustard" section,[37]
Between the 1950s through the 1970s, at least 2,200 military
personnel
were subjected to various biological agents, referred to as Operation
Whitecoat. Unlike most of the studies discussed in this report,
Operation Whitecoat was truly voluntary. "Seventh" section,[37]
Between 1951 and 1969, Dugway Proving Ground was the site of testing
for various chemical and biological agents, including an open air
aerodynamic dissemination test in 1968 that accidentally killed, on
neighboring farms, approximately 6,400 sheep by an unspecified nerve
agent."Dugway" section,[37]
[edit] Developments by the Soviet government
Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government, very little
information was available about the direction and progress of the
Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently. After the fall of
the Soviet Union, Russian chemist Vil Mirzayanov published articles
revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia. In
1993,
Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State
Research
Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology, where he had worked
for
26 years. In March 1994, after a major campaign by U.S. scientists on
his behalf, Mirzayanov was released.[38]
Among the information related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of
Soviet research into the development of even more toxic nerve agents,
which saw most of its success during the mid-1980s. Several highly
toxic agents were developed during this period; the only unclassified
information regarding these agents is that they are known in the open
literature only as "Foliant" agents (named after the program under
which they were developed) and by various code designations, such as
A-230 and A-232.[39]
According to Mirzayanov, the Soviets also developed weapons that were
safer to handle, leading to the development of the binary weapons, in
which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to
produce the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are
generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves,
this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great
deal simpler. Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much
easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique
also
made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents a great
deal. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet
agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents (after
the Russian word for "newcomer").[40] Together with Lev Fedorov, he
told the secret Novichok story exposed in the newspaper Moscow News.
[41]
[edit] Iran–Iraq War


Victims of Iraq's poison gas attack in civil area during Iran–Iraq
War
Chemical weapons employed by Saddam Hussein killed and injured
numerous Iranians, and even Iraqis. According to Iraqi documents,
assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in
many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the
Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France and China.[42]
The Iran–Iraq War began in 1980 when Iraq attacked Iran. Early in the
conflict, Iraq began to employ mustard gas and tabun delivered by
bombs dropped from airplanes; approximately 5% of all Iranian
casualties are directly attributable to the use of these agents.
[citation needed]
About 100,000 Iranian soldiers were victims of Iraq's chemical
attacks. Many were hit by mustard gas. The official estimate does not
include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or
the
children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed
blood,
lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for
Veterans. Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers
immediately, according to official reports. Of the 80,000 survivors,
some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still
hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions.[43][44][45]
Iraq also targeted Iranian civilians with chemical weapons. Many
thousands were killed in attacks on populations in villages and
towns,
as well as front-line hospitals. Many still suffer from the severe
effects.
Despite the removal of Saddam and his regime by Coalition forces,
there is deep resentment and anger in Iran that it was Western
companies based in the Netherlands, West Germany, France, and the
U.S.
that helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal in the first
place, and that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of
chemical weapons throughout the war.[46]
Shortly before war ended in 1988, the Iraqi Kurdish village of
Halabja
was exposed to multiple chemical agents, killing about 5,000 of the
town's 50,000 residents [47]. After the incident, traces of mustard
gas and the nerve agents sarin, tabun and VX were discovered. (see
Halabja poison gas attack)
During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Coalition forces began a ground
war in Iraq. Despite the fact that they did possess chemical weapons,
Iraq did not use any chemical agents against coalition forces. The
commander of the Allied Forces, Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, suggested
this may have been due to Iraqi fear of retaliation with nuclear
weapons.[citation needed]
[edit] Falklands War
Technically, the reported employment of tear gas by Argentine forces
during the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands constitutes chemical
warfare.[48] However, the tear gas grenades were employed as
nonlethal
weapons to avoid British casualties. The British claim that more
lethal, but possibly legally justifiable, white phosphorus grenades
were used.[49] The barrack buildings the weapons were used on proved
to be deserted in any case.
[edit] Terrorism
For many terrorist organizations, chemical weapons might be
considered
an ideal choice for a mode of attack, if they are available: they are
cheap, relatively accessible, and easy to transport. A skilled
chemist
can readily synthesize most chemical agents if the precursors are
available.
The earliest successful use of chemical agents in a non-combat
setting
was in 1946, motivated by a desire to obtain revenge on Germans for
the Holocaust. Three members of a Jewish group calling themselves
Dahm
Y'Israel Nokeam ("Avenging Israel's Blood") hid in a bakery in the
Stalag 13 prison camp near Nuremberg, Germany, where several thousand
SS troops were being detained. The three applied an arsenic-
containing
mixture to loaves of bread, sickening more than 2,000 prisoners, of
whom more than 200 required hospitalization.
In July 1974, a group calling themselves the Aliens of America
successfully firebombed the houses of a judge, two police
commissioners, and one of the commissioner’s cars, burned down two
apartment buildings, and bombed the Pan Am Terminal at Los Angeles
International Airport, killing three people and injuring eight. The
organization, which turned out to be a single resident alien named
Muharem Kurbegovic, claimed to have developed and possessed a supply
of sarin, as well as 4 unique nerve agents named AA1, AA2, AA3, and
AA4S. Although no agents were found at the time he was arrested in
August 1974, he had reportedly acquired "all but one" of the
ingredients required to produce a nerve agent. A search of his
apartment turned up a variety of materials, including precursors for
phosgene and a drum containing 25 pounds of sodium cyanide.[50]
The first successful use of chemical agents by terrorists against a
general civilian population was on March 20, 1995. Aum Shinrikyo, an
apocalyptic group based in Japan that believed it necessary to
destroy
the planet, released sarin into the Tokyo subway system killing 12
and
injuring over 5,000. The group had attempted biological and chemical
attacks on at least 10 prior occasions, but managed to affect only
cult members. The group did manage to successfully release sarin
outside an apartment building in Matsumoto in June 1994; this use was
directed at a few specific individuals living in the building and was
not an attack on the general population.
On 29 December, 1999, four days after Russian forces began assault of
Grozny, Chechen terrorists exploded two chlor tanks in town. Because
of the wind conditions, no Russian soldiers were injured.[51]
In 2001, after carrying out the attacks in New York City on September
11, the organization Al Qaeda announced that they were attempting to
acquire radiological, biological and chemical weapons. This threat
was
lent a great deal of credibility when a large archive of videotapes
was obtained by the cable television network CNN in August 2002
showing, among other things, the killing of three dogs by an apparent
nerve agent.[52]
On October 26, 2002, Russian special forces used a chemical agent
(presumably KOLOKOL-1, an aerosolized fentanyl derivative), as a
precursor to an assault on Chechen terrorists, ending the Moscow
theater hostage crisis. All 42 of the terrorists and 120 of the
hostages were killed during the raid; all but one hostage, who was
killed, died from the effects of the agent.
In early 2007 multiple terrorist bombings have been reported in Iraq
using chlorine gas. These attacks have wounded or sickened more than
350 people. Reportedly the bombers are affiliated with Al-Qaeda in
Iraq
[53] and have used bombs of various sizes up to chlorine tanker
trucks.
[54] United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the
attacks as, "clearly intended to cause panic and instability in the
country."[55]


1946 to 1972
During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised
suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella
typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an
outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later
captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they
executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these
allegations.[18][19]
During the Cold War US conscientious objectors were used as
consenting
test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation
Whitecoat.[20] There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on
the public during the Cold War.[21]


E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the
Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention
Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States
(see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably
other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is
generally believed that biological weapons were never used after
World
War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who
accused
the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons,
including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the
Korean War (1950-1953). Cuba also accused the US of spreading human
and animal disease on their island. [22] [23] Recently revealed
documents[24][25] indicate that this was disinformation produced by
Soviet intelligence.
At the time of the Korean War the US had only weaponized one agent,
brucellosis (agent US), which is caused by Brucella suis. The
original
weaponized form used the M114 bursting bomblet in M33 cluster bombs.
While the specific form of the biological bomb was classified until
some years after the Korean War, in the various exhibits of
biological
weapons that Korea alleged were dropped on their country nothing
resembled an M114 bomblet. There were ceramic containers that had
some
similarity to Japanese weapons used against the Chinese in WWII,
developed by Unit 731.[10] Some of the Unit 731 personnel were
imprisoned by the Soviets[citation needed], and would have been a
potential source of information on Japanese weaponization. The head
of
Unit 731, Lieutenant General Shiro Ishii, was granted immunity from
war crimes prosecution in exchange for providing information to the
United States on the Unit's activities.[26]
The Korean War allegations also stressed the use of disease vectors,
such as fleas, which, again, were probably a legacy of Japanese
biological warfare efforts. The United States initiated its
weaponization efforts with disease vectors in 1953, focused on
Plague-
fleas, EEE-mosquitoes, and yellow fever - mosquitoes (OJ-AP).
[citation
needed]. However, US medical scientists in occupied Japan undertook
extensive research on insect vectors, with the assistance of former
Unit 731 staff, as early as 1946.[26]
The United States Air Force was not satisfied with the operational
qualities of the M114/US and labeled it an interim item until the US
Army Chemical Corps could deliver a superior weapon. The Air Force
also changed its plans and wanted lethal biologicals.[citation
needed]
The Chemical Corps then initiated a crash program to weaponize
anthrax
(N) in the E61 1/2-lb hour-glass bomblet. Though the program was
successful in meeting its development goals, the lack of validation
on
the infectivity of anthrax stalled standardization.[citation needed]
Around 1950 the Chemical Corps also initiated a program to weaponize
tularemia (UL). Shortly after the E61/N failed to make
standardization, tularemia was standardized in the 3.4" M143 bursting
spherical bomblet. This was intended for delivery by the MGM-29
Sergeant missile warhead and could produce 50% infection over a 7-
square-mile (18 km2) area.[citation needed] Unlike anthrax, tularemia
had a demonstrated infectivity with human volunteers (Operation
Whitecoat). Furthermore, although tularemia is treatable by
antibiotics, treatment does not shorten the course of the disease.
In addition to the use of bursting bomblets for creating biological
aerosols, the Chemical Corps started investigating aerosol-generating
bomblets in the 1950s. The E99 was the first workable design, but was
too complex to be manufactured.[citation needed] By the late 1950s
the
4.5" E120 spraying spherical bomblet was developed; a B-47 bomber
with
a SUU-24/A dispenser could infect 50% or more of the population of a
16-square-mile (41 km2) area with tularemia with the E120.[citation
needed] The E120 was later superseded by dry-type agents.
Dry-type biologicals resemble talcum powder, and can be disseminated
as aerosols using gas expulsion devices instead of a burster or
complex sprayer.[citation needed] The Chemical Corps developed
Flettner rotor bomblets and later triangular bomblets for wider
coverage due to improved glide angles over Magnus-lift spherical
bomblets.[citation needed] Weapons of this type were in advanced
development by the time the program ended.[citation needed]
Richard Nixon signed an executive order on November 1969, which
stopped production of biological weapons in the U.S. and allowed only
scientific research of lethal biological agents and defensive
measures
such as immunization and biosafety. The biological munition
stockpiles
were destroyed, and approximately 2,200 researchers became redundant
[17].
United States special forces and the CIA also had an interest in
biological warfare, and a series of special munitions was created for
their operations.[citation needed] The covert weapons developed for
the military (M1, M2, M4, M5, and M32 - or Big Five Weapons) were
destroyed in accordance with Nixon's executive order to end the
offensive program. The CIA maintained its collection of biologicals
well into 1975 when it became the subject of the senate Church
Committee.

--- 2009年2月16日 星期一,


寄件人: 主題: yu fung liu look for family members. Kindly forward my info
to them
日期: 2009 2 16 星期一 下午 3:43


--- 2009年2月16日 星期一, 寫道﹕


寄件人: <>
主題: yu fung liu look for family members. Kindly forward my info to
them
日期: 2009 2 16 星期一 下午 3:35


To who it may concern:


I (yu fung Liu) lost contact with my family members and most business
friends, anyone kindly forward my contact information to them will be
greatly appreciated.


HongKong Cell phone: 852-93460474
Email: ***@yahoo.com.hk



Territorial changes in the world 1945 - 2000 (History of Egypt, a
Israeli opponent)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egypt
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhuge_Liang's_Northern_Expeditions


Lee and Leung are garbage generals in modern warfare.


Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980 - continual victory
of 35 years
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_of_Pigs_Invasion
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_War
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_saigon


Expansion of communist power between 1945 to 1980


1945 - 1949 Chinese Civil War and Communist victory
1949 liberation war of NanJing and ShaiHai
1949 Founding of PROC
1953 Korean War ended at 38 parallel
1953 - 1959 Cuban Revolution and communist victory in Cuba
1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion and Cuban victory
1959 – 1975 Vietnam War and communist victory
1975 The Fall of Saigon and communist victory in Vietnam


1950 - 1980 Domination of communist block in Olympic Boxing.
Territories and regions
Main article: Regions of the Middle East
Country, with flag Area
(km²) Population Density
(per km²) Capital GDP (Total) Per capita Currency Government Official
languages
Persian Plateau:
Iran 1,648,195 71,208,000 42 Tehran $753 billion (2007) $10,600
(2007) Iranian rial Islamic Republic Persian
Anatolia:
Turkey 783,562 70,586,256[17] (2007) 91 Ankara $888 billion (2007)
$12,900 (2007) Turkish new lira Parliamentary Democracy Turkish
Mesopotamia:
Iraq 437,072 24,001,816 55 Baghdad $102.3 billion (2007) $3,600
(2007) Iraqi dinar Parliamentary Democracy (Developing) Arabic,
Kurdish
Arabian Peninsula:
Kuwait 17,820 3,100,000 119 Kuwait City $130.1 billion (2007) $39,300
(2007) Kuwaiti dinar Constitutional Hereditary Arabic
Bahrain 665 656,397 987 Manama $24.5 billion (2007) $32,100 (2007)
Bahraini Dinar Constitutional monarchy Arabic
Oman 212,460 3,200,000 13 Muscat $61.6 billion (2007) $24,000 (2007)
Omani Rial Absolute monarchy Arabic
Qatar 11,437 793,341 69 Doha $57.7 billion (2007) $80,900 (2007)
Qatari Riyal Monarchy Arabic
Saudi Arabia 1,960,582 23,513,330 12 Riyadh $564.6 billion (2007)
$23,200 (2007) Riyal Absolute monarchy Arabic
United Arab Emirates 82,880 4,496,000 30 Abu Dhabi $167.3 billion
(2007) $37,300 (2007) UAE dirham Federal Constitutional Monarchy
Arabic
Yemen 527,970 18,701,257 35 Sanaá $52 billion (2007) $2,300 (2007)
Yemeni rial Republic Arabic
The Levant:
Israel 20,770 7,029,529 290 Jerusalem1 $185.9 billion (2007) $25,800
(2007) Israeli new sheqel Parliamentary democracy Hebrew, Arabic,
English
Jordan 92,300 5,307,470 58 Amman $28 billion (2007) $4,900 (2007)
Jordanian dinar Constitutional monarchy Arabic
Lebanon 10,452 3,677,780 354 Beirut $42.3 billion (2007) $11,300
(2007) Lebanese pound Republic Arabic
Syria 185,180 17,155,814 93 Damascus $87 billion (2007) $4,500 (2007)
Syrian pound Presidential republic Arabic
North Africa:
Egypt 1,001,449 77,498,000 74 Cairo $404 billion (2007) $5,500 (2007)
Egyptian pound Semi-presidential republic (democracy) Arabic
Autonomous region: Palestine:
Gaza Strip 360 1,376,289 3,823 Gaza $5 billion (includes West Bank)
(2006) $1,100 (includes West Bank) (2006) Israeli new sheqel
Palestinian National Authority Hamas Arabic
West Bank 5,8602 2,500,0003 4322,3 Ramallah Israeli new sheqel
Palestinian National Authority Fatah Arabic
Source:
The World Factbook, United States Central Intelligence Agency (CIA),
15 July 2008.[3]
Notes:
1 Under Israeli law. The UN doesn't recognize Jerusalem as Israel's
capital.
2 Includes the whole of the West Bank, according to the pre-1967
boundaries.
3 In addition, there are around 400,000 Israeli settlers in the West
Bank, of which half are in East-Jerusalem


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egypt


Sincerely


Yu Fung Liu
Making the right choice in your life.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marseillaise
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_Of_Liberty



Congratulation on ZOU, Shiming and ZHANG, Xiaoping.
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Beijing 2008 Boxing 48kg (light flywieght) Men ZOU, Shiming
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Barcelona 1992 Boxing + 91kg (super heavyweight) Men BALADO
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Rogelio
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 48 - 51kg (flyweight) Men CHOI, Chol Su
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Hector
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Michael
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 67 - 71kg (light-middleweight) Men LEMUS
GARCIA, Juan Carlos
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 71-75kg Men HERNANDEZ ASCUY, Ariel
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 75 - 81kg (light-heavyweight) Men MAY,
Torsten
Barcelona 1992 Boxing 81 - 91kg (heavyweight) Men SAVON, Felix


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World all heavyweight ratings
page: 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 |
9 | 10 | 11 » [817]
name W-L-D last 6 career stance residence
1 Muhammad Ali 56 (37) - 5 (1) - 0
1960-1981 orthodox Louisville, Kentucky, United States
2 Joe Louis 65 (51) - 3 (2) - 0
1934-1951 orthodox Detroit, Michigan, United States
3 Jack Johnson 73 (40) - 13 (7) - 9
1897-1938 orthodox Raleigh, North Carolina, United States
4 Floyd Patterson 55 (40) - 8 (5) - 1
1952-1972 orthodox Brooklyn, New York, United States
5 Joe Frazier 32 (27) - 4 (3) - 1
1965-1981 orthodox Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States
6 Harry Wills 81 (51) - 10 (5) - 4
1911-1932 orthodox New Orleans, Louisiana, United States
7 Sonny Liston 50 (39) - 4 (3) - 0
1953-1970 orthodox Saint Louis, Missouri, United States
8 Sam Langford 203 (129) - 46 (9) - 52
1902-1926 orthodox Boston, Massachusetts, United States
9 Larry Holmes 69 (44) - 6 (1) - 0
1973-2002 orthodox Easton, Pennsylvania, United States
10 Ezzard Charles 92 (51) - 25 (7) - 1
1940-1959 orthodox Cincinnati, Ohio, United States
11 Lennox Lewis 41 (32) - 2 (2) - 1
1989-2003 orthodox London, United Kingdom
12 Rocky Marciano 49 (43) - 0 (0) - 0
1947-1955 orthodox Brockton, Massachusetts, United States
13 George Foreman 76 (68) - 5 (1) - 0
1969-1997 orthodox Houston, Texas, United States
14 Jimmy Bivins 86 (31) - 25 (5) - 1
1940-1955 orthodox Cleveland, Ohio, United States
15 Max Schmeling 56 (40) - 10 (5) - 4
1924-1948 orthodox Brandenburg, Germany
16 Mike Tyson 50 (44) - 6 (5) - 0
1985-2005 orthodox Catskill, New York, United States
17 James J Jeffries 18 (15) - 1 (1) - 2
1896-1910 orthodox San Francisco, California, United States
18 Marvin Hart 30 (20) - 8 (5) - 7
1899-1910 orthodox Fern Creek, Kentucky, United States
19 Jack Sharkey 38 (13) - 14 (4) - 3
1924-1936 orthodox Boston, Massachusetts, United States
20 Sam McVea 65 (47) - 16 (5) - 10
1902-1921 orthodox Oxnard, California, United States
21 Joe Jeannette 112 (68) - 22 (2) - 14
1904-1922 orthodox Union City, New Jersey, United States
22 Max Baer 68 (52) - 13 (3) - 0
1929-1941 orthodox Livermore, California, United States
23 Jack Dempsey 66 (51) - 6 (1) - 11
1914-1927 orthodox Salt Lake City, Utah, United States
24 Ken Norton 42
...



Gladiator VS predators: a challenge or testimony to Darwin's Theory
of
Evolution
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
For my entire life, I have challenged 150-600 lbs bears, 150-600 lbs lbs
tigers, 150-600 lbs lbs lions, 150-600 lbs panthers, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.
The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
with drug, doping, poison earned you a reputation worldwide of
brutality, thievery, and treason.
I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.
Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
Quotation:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin's_Theory_of_Evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Chimpanzee
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_(biology)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_genetics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genetic_variation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_health
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence


USA VS USSR & communist block in propaganda and in reality

Quotation from wikipedia and other sources

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_IV
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambo:_First_Blood_Part_II
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambo_III


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Soldier_(1992_film)

Around 1990, ten republican guards attacked and knocked out a US
marine hand to hand combat top trainer, Lee (a relative of Bruce Lee
and Jeet Kune Do expert) within five minutes in a military exercise.
In order to stop them from causing more harm with bayonets, I engaged
them unarmed and knocked out all of them. Based on Lee's performance
in the military exercise and my past boxing experience with martial
art experts from military around the world, I found Jeet Kune Do to be
impractical in combat and it does not have any advantage over karate,
Taekwondo, Chinese Kung Fu and other martial act.

My only deadly mistake in life and its consequence for rescuing
westerners:
Current situation: Lost contact with most family members and business
friends. File missing person report on some family members.
Phone were illegally intercepted. In coma for months after car
accident in 2003-2004. Kidnapped by Canadian hospital in 2008. Waiting
for food offered by homeless shelter.
现状: 被害至家破人亡

關於我自己: Born in 1970, not on forth of July.

Email: ***@yahoo.com.hk
Cell phone: 852-93460474


My world record around 1990:
All contenders are required to complete blood test by Olympic
doctors.


European and gladiators in Europe fight predators and animals with
swords for thousand of years, Yu Fung Liu from China knocked out the
most wild predators without weapon in the shortest period of time.


Never lost a round in hundred of battles so far,


Gladiators Record:
knocked out bison, tigers, bears, lions, panthers and other
predators.
Boxing record:
knocked out and knocked down Mike Tyson three times in a single game.
knocked out the most Olympic boxing champions and martial art experts
in the shortest period of time.
Interviewed the most military personnel in the world.


I rescued Lee based on humanitarian ground and the need to restore
justice around 1990. It never suggest endorsement and alliance with
the Lee's family and his form of martial act.


Comparison of treatment between Islamic fighters and veterans of the
West, It is time for a change!


Reward for Western fighter and athlete and reward for American
veterans


National Coalition for Homeless Veterans - Community
NCHV will end homelessness among veterans by shaping public policy,
educating the public, and building the capacity of service providers.
www.nchv.org/veteran.cfm - Cached


Reward for muslim fighter and athlete and reward for Christian convert
to Islam


Muhammad Ali
A month later an all-white jury found him guilty of draft evasion, and
Ali was imprisoned. ... Draft Evasion convicted 1967, overturned by
the Supreme Court 1971.
www.nndb.com/people/487/000022421 - Cached


Muhammad Ali Center
The six-story, 96,750 sq ft (8,988 m2). museum opened on November 19,
2005 at a cost of $80 million.[1] It also includes a 40,000 sq ft
(3,700 m2). two-level amphitheater and plaza that will be connected to
the Louisville Museum Plaza upon its construction.


http://www.alicenter.org
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Center
http://www.why-christians-convert-to-islam.com/
http://muslimconverts.com/converts/index.htm
http://www.northjersey.com/news/njpolitics/33204374.html
http://www1.va.gov/homeless/page.cfm?pg=1
http://www.nchv.org/veteran.cfm


They reward Muhammad Ali for draft evasion and his role in anti-war
movement. It is better to be Muhammad Ali than a homeless veteran.
Everyone wants the West to lose the war.





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Tienshen
2009-04-24 20:01:44 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by Tienshen
Post by Tienshen
Post by n***@millions.com
On Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:54:34 -0700 (PDT), rst0wxyz
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Trying to enlist help from others just to satisfy your silly wish to
be a leader? Ain't nobody following.
How dare he! Throw him out of here. We all know that you, and only,
are eligible to be leader, right?
Yeah, sure! only if you want to go around in circles. Oh! and with
small steps.
So, you're telling us that you're a midget chained to a pole, huh?
I take umbrage to your remark, sir! At 4'9", I have many followers,
who are most willing and adaptable to marching with me as I head
around the pond in front of the building where these folks work.
There is no need for a chain. A light ribbon suffices.
||
Pink, no doubt.
Those who take umbrage to whatever remark is said about them should
never have entered within these confines in the first place!
O.K., so you're a giant duck.
Pink? Large duck? I shall enter where I choose in the usenet cyber BS.
Abandon all hope, all ye who enter here, Ducky!
mrliu918
2009-05-05 07:30:50 UTC
Permalink
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
Opened response to rst0wxyz (***@yahoo.com)

Mr butterfly and bicycle:

For my entire life, I have challenged 200-500 lbs bears, 200-500 lbs
tigers, 200-500 lbs lions, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.

Mr butterfly and bicycle:

The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
earned you a reputation worldwide.

I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.

Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
rst0wxyz
2009-05-05 07:51:10 UTC
Permalink
Post by mrliu918
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
For my entire life, I have challenged 200-500 lbs bears, 200-500 lbs
tigers, 200-500 lbs lions, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.
The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
earned you a reputation worldwide.
I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.
Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
Man!!! you are as bad a liar as abianchen aka Meichi cunt.
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-05 12:21:04 UTC
Permalink
Rusty Old Fool, you old homo, most people here including yourself know
I am a Chinese guy from Taiwan, using photos of a beautiful innocent
Thai girl “Meichi” to flame me only shows how pathetic you are! Why
don’t you stay on the topic or apologize for your false claim [BS].

Rusty Old Fool, I only ask you to back up your false claim [BS] that
Confucius teachings (impotence of education, family value, discipline,
etc) brought the downfall of China, Singapore. Japan, Korea, HK,
Taiwan... but you could not because you have never read Analects of
Confucius and you have no idea what Confucianism is...so you got mad,
you curse, talk dirty, isn't it sad?


Rusty Old Fool, you also defended Nazi's Holocaust. One netter said he
thinks you are more crazy than he had previously thought, then you
cursed that netter too. I think that netter was right!
Post by mrliu918
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
For my entire life, I have challenged 200-500 lbs bears, 200-500 lbs
tigers, 200-500 lbs lions, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.
The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
earned you a reputation worldwide.
I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.
Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
Man!!! you are as bad a liar as abianchen aka Meichi cunt.- Hide quoted text -
- Show quoted text -
rst0wxyz
2009-05-05 15:54:53 UTC
Permalink
abum_chump is a hate-monger out to create trouble. A lying bitch is
always a lying bitch no matter what. Meichi cunt aka abianchen filthy
smelly pussy is here in SCC stirring up hatred and ill-feelings among
members. She should be shot on sight.
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-05 16:38:26 UTC
Permalink
Rusty Old Fool, you old homo, most people here including yourself know
I am a Chinese guy from Taiwan, using photos of a beautiful innocent
Thai girl “Meichi” to flame me only shows how pathetic you are! Why
don’t you stay on the topic or apologize for your false claim [BS].

Rusty Old Fool, I only ask you to back up your false claim [BS] that
Confucius teachings (impotence of education, family value, discipline,
etc) brought the downfall of China, Singapore. Japan, Korea, HK,
Taiwan... but you could not because you have never read Analects of
Confucius and you have no idea what Confucianism is...so you got mad,
you curse, talk dirty, isn't it sad?


Rusty Old Fool, you also defended Nazi's Holocaust. One netter said he
thinks you are more crazy than he had previously thought, then you
cursed that netter too. I think that netter was right!
Post by rst0wxyz
abum_chump is a hate-monger out to create trouble. A lying bitch is
always a lying bitch no matter what. Meichi cunt aka abianchen filthy
smelly pussy is here in SCC stirring up hatred and ill-feelings among
members. She should be shot on sight.
rst0wxyz
2009-05-05 19:22:27 UTC
Permalink
abum_chump is a hate-monger out to create trouble. A lying bitch is
always a lying bitch no matter what. Meichi cunt aka abianchen filthy
smelly pussy is here in SCC stirring up hatred and ill-feelings among
members. She should be shot on sight.
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-06 04:39:30 UTC
Permalink
Rusty Old Fool, you old homo, most people here including yourself know
I am a Chinese guy from Taiwan, using photos of a beautiful innocent
Thai girl “Meichi” to flame me only shows how pathetic you are! Why
don’t you stay on the topic or apologize for your false claim [BS].

Rusty Old Fool, I only ask you to back up your false claim [BS] that
Confucius teachings (impotence of education, family value, discipline,
etc) brought the downfall of China, Singapore. Japan, Korea, HK,
Taiwan... but you could not because you have never read Analects of
Confucius and you have no idea what Confucianism is...so you got mad,
you curse, talk dirty, isn't it sad?


Rusty Old Fool, you also defended Nazi's Holocaust. One netter said he
thinks you are more crazy than he had previously thought, then you
cursed that netter too. I think that netter was right!
Post by rst0wxyz
abum_chump is a hate-monger out to create trouble. A lying bitch is
always a lying bitch no matter what. Meichi cunt aka abianchen filthy
smelly pussy is here in SCC stirring up hatred and ill-feelings among
members. She should be shot on sight.
mrliu918
2009-05-13 08:00:41 UTC
Permalink
Gladiator VS predators: a challenge or testimony to Darwin's Theory of
Evolution
Post by mrliu918
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
For my entire life, I have challenged 200-500 lbs bears, 200-500 lbs
tigers, 200-500 lbs lions, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.
The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
with drug, doping, poison earned you a reputation worldwide of
brutality, thievery, and treason.
I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.
Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
Quotation:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin's_Theory_of_Evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96&variant=zh-hk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Chimpanzee
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_(biology)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_genetics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genetic_variation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_health
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence

On the Origin of Species
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Darwin's Theory of Evolution)
Jump to: navigation, search
"Origin of Species" redirects here. For other uses, see Origin of
Species (disambiguation).
On the Origin of Species

The title page of the 1859 edition
of On the Origin of Species
Author Charles Darwin
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Subject(s) Evolutionary biology
Publisher John Murray
Publication date 24 November 1859
Media type print (hardback & paperback)
ISBN ISBN 0-486-45006-6
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published 24 November 1859,
is a seminal work of scientific literature considered to be the
foundation of evolutionary biology. Its full title was On the Origin
of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. For the 6th edition of 1872,
the shorter title was changed to The Origin of Species. Darwin's book
introduced the theory that populations evolve over the course of
generations through a process of natural selection, and presented a
body of evidence that the diversity of life arose through a branching
pattern of evolution and common descent. This included evidence that
he had accumulated on the voyage of the Beagle in the 1830s, and his
subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and
experimentation.

Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new
findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among
dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half
of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely
tied to the Church of England, and science was part of natural
theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial
as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts
of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to
animals. The political and theological implications were intensely
debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific
mainstream.

The book was written to be read by non-specialists, and it attracted
widespread interest on its publication. Darwin's eminence as a
scientist meant that his findings had to be taken seriously, and the
evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and
religious discussion. Within two decades this led to widespread
scientific agreement that evolution with a branching pattern of common
descent had occurred. The debate over the book contributed to the
campaign by T.H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X-club to
secularize science by promoting scientific naturalism. Scientists were
slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought
appropriate, and during the eclipse of Darwinism various other
mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the modern
evolutionary synthesis of the 1930s and 1940s Darwin's concept of
evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to
modern evolutionary theory, which is the unifying concept of the life
sciences.

Contents [hide]
1 Summary of Darwin's theory
2 Background
2.1 Developments before Darwin's theory
2.2 Inception of Darwin's theory
2.3 Further development
3 Publication
3.1 Events leading to publication
3.2 Time taken to publish
3.3 Publication and subsequent editions
3.4 Publication outside Great Britain
4 Content
4.1 Title pages and introduction
4.2 Variation under domestication and under nature
4.3 Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence
4.4 Variation and heredity
4.5 Difficulties for the theory
4.6 Geologic record
4.7 Geographic distribution
4.8 Classification, morphology, embryology, rudimentary organs
4.9 Concluding remarks
5 Structure and style
5.1 Nature and structure of Darwin's argument
5.2 Literary style
6 Reception
6.1 Impact on the scientific community
6.1.1 Impact outside Great Britain
6.1.2 Natural selection
6.2 Religious attitudes
6.3 Modern influence
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Contemporary reviews
10 External links



[edit] Summary of Darwin's theory

Darwin shortly after publicationDarwin's theory is based on key facts
and inferences drawn from them, which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised
as follows:[1]

Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to
reproduce the population would grow (fact).
Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same
size (fact).
Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time
(fact).
A struggle for survival ensues (inference).
Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another
(fact).
Much of this variation is inheritable (fact).
Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive
and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the
environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce
and leave their inheritable traits to future generations, which
produces the process of natural selection (inference).
This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt
to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate
over time to form new species (inference).

[edit] Background

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mrliu918
2009-05-13 07:43:40 UTC
Permalink
Gladiator VS predators: a challenge or testimony to Darwin's Theory of
Evolution
Post by mrliu918
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
For my entire life, I have challenged 200-500 lbs bears, 200-500 lbs
tigers, 200-500 lbs lions, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.
The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
with drug, doping, poison earned you a reputation worldwide of
brutality, thievery, and treason.
I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.
Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
Quotation:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin's_Theory_of_Evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96&variant=zh-hk


On the Origin of Species
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Darwin's Theory of Evolution)
Jump to: navigation, search
"Origin of Species" redirects here. For other uses, see Origin of
Species (disambiguation).
On the Origin of Species

The title page of the 1859 edition
of On the Origin of Species
Author Charles Darwin
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Subject(s) Evolutionary biology
Publisher John Murray
Publication date 24 November 1859
Media type print (hardback & paperback)
ISBN ISBN 0-486-45006-6
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published 24 November 1859,
is a seminal work of scientific literature considered to be the
foundation of evolutionary biology. Its full title was On the Origin
of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. For the 6th edition of 1872,
the shorter title was changed to The Origin of Species. Darwin's book
introduced the theory that populations evolve over the course of
generations through a process of natural selection, and presented a
body of evidence that the diversity of life arose through a branching
pattern of evolution and common descent. This included evidence that
he had accumulated on the voyage of the Beagle in the 1830s, and his
subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and
experimentation.

Various evolutionary ideas had already been proposed to explain new
findings in biology. There was growing support for such ideas among
dissident anatomists and the general public, but during the first half
of the 19th century the English scientific establishment was closely
tied to the Church of England, and science was part of natural
theology. Ideas about the transmutation of species were controversial
as they conflicted with the beliefs that species were unchanging parts
of a designed hierarchy and that humans were unique, unrelated to
animals. The political and theological implications were intensely
debated, but transmutation was not accepted by the scientific
mainstream.

The book was written to be read by non-specialists, and it attracted
widespread interest on its publication. Darwin's eminence as a
scientist meant that his findings had to be taken seriously, and the
evidence he presented generated scientific, philosophical, and
religious discussion. Within two decades this led to widespread
scientific agreement that evolution with a branching pattern of common
descent had occurred. The debate over the book contributed to the
campaign by T.H. Huxley and his fellow members of the X-club to
secularize science by promoting scientific naturalism. Scientists were
slow to give natural selection the significance that Darwin thought
appropriate, and during the eclipse of Darwinism various other
mechanisms of evolution were given more credit. With the modern
evolutionary synthesis of the 1930s and 1940s Darwin's concept of
evolutionary adaptation through natural selection became central to
modern evolutionary theory, which is the unifying concept of the life
sciences.

Contents [hide]
1 Summary of Darwin's theory
2 Background
2.1 Developments before Darwin's theory
2.2 Inception of Darwin's theory
2.3 Further development
3 Publication
3.1 Events leading to publication
3.2 Time taken to publish
3.3 Publication and subsequent editions
3.4 Publication outside Great Britain
4 Content
4.1 Title pages and introduction
4.2 Variation under domestication and under nature
4.3 Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence
4.4 Variation and heredity
4.5 Difficulties for the theory
4.6 Geologic record
4.7 Geographic distribution
4.8 Classification, morphology, embryology, rudimentary organs
4.9 Concluding remarks
5 Structure and style
5.1 Nature and structure of Darwin's argument
5.2 Literary style
6 Reception
6.1 Impact on the scientific community
6.1.1 Impact outside Great Britain
6.1.2 Natural selection
6.2 Religious attitudes
6.3 Modern influence
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Contemporary reviews
10 External links



[edit] Summary of Darwin's theory

Darwin shortly after publicationDarwin's theory is based on key facts
and inferences drawn from them, which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised
as follows:[1]

Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to
reproduce the population would grow (fact).
Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same
size (fact).
Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time
(fact).
A struggle for survival ensues (inference).
Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another
(fact).
Much of this variation is inheritable (fact).
Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive
and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the
environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce
and leave their inheritable traits to future generations, which
produces the process of natural selection (inference).
This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt
to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate
over time to form new species (inference).

[edit] Background

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���D��: ����, ����
���N��Դ
On the Origin of Species

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Introduction to evolution
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is intended as an accessible, non-technical introduction
to the subject. For the main encyclopedia article, see Evolution.

Triceratops and nest by Karen Carr.
Natural selection does not lead to perfection; dramatic changes in the
environment often lead to mass extinctions, as in the case of the
dinosaurs nearly 65 million years ago.
Overview
Life forms reproduce to make offspring.
The offspring differs from the parent in minor random ways.
If the differences are helpful, the offspring is more likely to
survive and reproduce.
This means that more offspring in the next generation will have the
helpful difference.
These differences accumulate resulting in changes within the
population.
Over time, this process gradually leads to entirely new types of
life.
This process is responsible for the many diverse life forms in the
world today.

Haeckel's Paleontological Tree of Vertebrates (c. 1879).
The evolutionary history of species has been described as a "tree",
with many branches arising from a single trunk. While Haeckel's tree
is somewhat outdated, it illustrates clearly the principles that more
complex modern reconstructions can obscure.
Evolution is the process of change in all forms of life over
generations, and evolutionary biology is the study of how evolution
occurs.

Every generation an organism inherits features (called traits) from
its parents through genes. Changes (called mutations) in the genes can
produce a new trait in the offspring of an organism. Traits which help
the organism survive and reproduce are more likely to accumulate in a
population than traits that are unfavorable, a process called natural
selection. The overproduction of offspring and heritability of traits
are two additional facts of life that support the scientific
foundation of natural selection.[1]

With each passing generation, some traits become more common in
populations of organisms while other traits disappear. The forces of
evolution are most evident when populations become isolated, either
through geographic distance or by some other mechanism preventing
genetic exchange. After enough time, isolated populations can branch
off into new species.[2][3]

The understanding of evolutionary biology began with the 1859
publication of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. In addition,
Gregor Mendel's work with plants helped to explain the hereditary
patterns of genetics. This led to an understanding of the mechanisms
of inheritance.[4] Further discoveries on how genes mutate, as well as
advances in population genetics explained more details of how
evolution occurs. Scientists now have a good understanding of the
origin of new species (speciation). They have observed the speciation
process happening both in the laboratory and in the wild. This modern
view of evolution is the principal theory that scientists use to
understand life.

Contents [hide]
1 Darwin's idea: evolution by natural selection
2 Source of variation
3 Modern synthesis
4 Evidence for evolution
4.1 Fossil record
4.2 Comparative anatomy
4.3 Molecular biology
4.4 Co-evolution
4.5 Artificial selection
5 Species
6 Different views on the mechanism of evolution
6.1 Rate of change
6.2 Unit of change
7 Summary
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 Further reading
12 External links
13 Related information



[edit] Darwin's idea: evolution by natural selection
For more details on this topic, see Common descent.
Charles Darwin developed the idea that each species had developed from
ancestors with similar features, and in 1838, he described how a
process he called natural selection would make this happen.[5]
Darwin's idea of how evolution works relied on the following
observations:[6]

If all the individuals of a species reproduced successfully, the
population of that species would increase uncontrollably.
Populations tend to remain about the same size from year to year.
Environmental resources are limited.
No two individuals in a given species are exactly alike.
Much of this variation in a population can be passed on to offspring.

Charles Darwin proposed the theory of evolution by natural selection.


Darwin noted that orchids exhibited a variety of complex adaptations
to ensure pollination; all derived from basic floral parts.Darwin
deduced that since organisms produce more offspring than their
environment could possibly support, there must be a competitive
struggle for survival - only a few individuals can survive out of each
generation. Darwin realized that it was not chance alone that
determined survival. Instead, survival depends on the traits of each
individual and if these traits aid or hinder survival and
reproduction. Well-adapted, or "fit", individuals are likely to leave
more offspring than their less well-adapted competitors. Darwin
realized that the unequal ability of individuals to survive and
reproduce could cause gradual changes in the population. Traits that
help an organism survive and reproduce would accumulate over
generations. On the other hand, traits that hinder survival and
reproduction would disappear. Darwin used the term natural selection
to describe this process.[7]

Natural selection is commonly equated with survival of the fittest,
but this expression originated in Herbert Spencer's Principles of
Biology in 1864, after Charles Darwin published his original works.
Survival of the fittest describes the process of natural selection
incorrectly, because natural selection is not only about survival and
it is not always the fittest that survives.[8]

Observations of variations in animals and plants formed the basis of
the theory of natural selection. For example, Darwin observed that
orchids and insects have a close relationship that allows the
pollination of the plants. He noted that orchids have a variety of
structures that attract insects - so that pollen from the flowers gets
stuck to the insects' bodies. In this way, insects transport the
pollen from a male to a female orchid. In spite of the elaborate
appearance of orchids, these specialized parts are made from the same
basic structures that make up other flowers. In Fertilisation of
Orchids Darwin proposed that the orchid flowers did not represent the
work of an ideal engineer, but were adapted from pre-existing parts,
through natural selection.[9]

Darwin was still researching and experimenting with his ideas on
natural selection when he received a letter from Alfred Wallace
describing a theory very similar to his own. This led to an immediate
joint publication of both theories. Both Wallace and Darwin saw the
history of life like a family tree, with each fork in the tree's limbs
being a common ancestor. The tips of the limbs represented modern
species and the branches represented the common ancestors that are
shared amongst many different species. To explain these relationships,
Darwin said that all living things were related, and this meant that
all life must be descended from a few forms, or even from a single
common ancestor. He called this process, "descent with modification".
[6]

Darwin published his theory of evolution by natural selection in On
the Origin of Species in 1859. His theory means that all life,
including humanity, is a product of continuing natural processes. The
implication that all life on earth has a common ancestor has met with
objections from some religious groups who believe even today that the
different types of life are due to special creation.[10] Their
objections are in contrast to the level of support for the theory by
more than 99 percent of those within the scientific community today.
[11]


[edit] Source of variation

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mrliu918
2009-05-13 08:08:47 UTC
Permalink
Gladiator VS predators: a challenge or testimony to Darwin's Theory of
Evolution
Post by mrliu918
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
For my entire life, I have challenged 200-500 lbs bears, 200-500 lbs
tigers, 200-500 lbs lions, 200 lbs Mike Tyson with less than 5% fat,
Olympic boxing champions with more than 10 years of formal training in
world class facilities, 200-400 lb Japanese Sumo champions, martial
act experts from military who claimed too many life with bayonets in
war. All my contenders in the ring are either in heavy weight category
or someone with far more experience than myself in world class
training in martial act. All my contenders in the ring are required to
complete blood test by Olympic doctors to ensure that they are at the
peak of their performance and at the best time of physical age. Of
course, all the contenders are served with notice and warning prior to
their voluntary engagement in the ring.
The difference between us is a matter of character and tactics. As I
notice, you always prefer to pose as a loyal servant of someone and
launch undeclared war against them from behind after stealing their
trust. Your expertise to prey on the weak, the old, the handicapped,
the wounded, the insane, the retarded, the death and the hopeless
with drug, doping, poison earned you a reputation worldwide of
brutality, thievery, and treason.
I don't know if you could ever find any common ground between us to
begin with for our cooperation.
Should you find any similarity in character and tactics between us in
the future, contact me again.
Quotation:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwin's_Theory_of_Evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%89%A9%E7%A7%8D%E8%B5%B7%E6%BA%90
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_evolution
http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E6%BC%94%E5%8C%96%E8%AB%96&variant=zh-hk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Chimpanzee
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homo_(biology)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatomically_modern_humans
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_genetics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_genetic_variation
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_(classification_of_human_beings)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_health
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_and_intelligence

On the Origin of Species
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Darwin's Theory of Evolution)
Jump to: navigation, search
"Origin of Species" redirects here. For other uses, see Origin of
Species (disambiguation).
On the Origin of Species
The title page of the 1859 edition
of On the Origin of Species
Author Charles Darwin
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Subject(s) Evolutionary biology
Publisher John Murray
Publication date 24 November 1859
Media type print (hardback & paperback)
ISBN ISBN 0-486-45006-6
Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, published 24 November 1859,
is a seminal work of scientific literature considered to be the
foundation of evolutionary biology. Its full title was On the Origin
of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life. For the 6th edition of 1872,
the shorter title was changed to The Origin of Species. Darwin's book
introduced the theory that populations evolve over the course of
generations through a process of natural selection, and presented a
body of evidence that the diversity of life arose through a branching
pattern of evolution and common descent. This included evidence that
he had accumulated on the voyage of the Beagle in the 1830s, and his
subsequent findings from research, correspondence, and
experimentation.


Contents [hide]
1 Summary of Darwin's theory
2 Background
2.1 Developments before Darwin's theory
2.2 Inception of Darwin's theory
2.3 Further development
3 Publication
3.1 Events leading to publication
3.2 Time taken to publish
3.3 Publication and subsequent editions
3.4 Publication outside Great Britain
4 Content
4.1 Title pages and introduction
4.2 Variation under domestication and under nature
4.3 Struggle for existence, natural selection, and divergence
4.4 Variation and heredity
4.5 Difficulties for the theory
4.6 Geologic record
4.7 Geographic distribution
4.8 Classification, morphology, embryology, rudimentary organs
4.9 Concluding remarks
5 Structure and style
5.1 Nature and structure of Darwin's argument
5.2 Literary style
6 Reception
6.1 Impact on the scientific community
6.1.1 Impact outside Great Britain
6.1.2 Natural selection
6.2 Religious attitudes
6.3 Modern influence
7 Notes
8 References
9 Further reading
9.1 Contemporary reviews
10 External links


[edit] Summary of Darwin's theory

Darwin shortly after publicationDarwin's theory is based on key facts
and inferences drawn from them, which biologist Ernst Mayr summarised
as follows:[1]
Every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to
reproduce the population would grow (fact).
Despite periodic fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same
size (fact).
Resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time
(fact).
A struggle for survival ensues (inference).
Individuals in a population vary significantly from one another
(fact).
Much of this variation is inheritable (fact).
Individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive
and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the
environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce
and leave their inheritable traits to future generations, which
produces the process of natural selection (inference).
This slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt
to their environments, and ultimately, these variations accumulate
over time to form new species (inference).
[edit] Background

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mrliu918
2009-05-24 05:59:49 UTC
Permalink
Other than their track record of failure in military affair and modern
warfare, Leung (aka Liang) and Lee ( aka Li) are thieves of the
century in professional boxing ?

Do not participate in underground ring and do not fight for the cheap
thief.

Quotation:

http://www.payscale.com/research/US/Job=Athlete_%2F_Sports_Competitor/Salary

Top Ten Lists Of Everything - Home
Location: Top Ten Lists » People, Sports, Money » Top Ten Highest Paid
Athletes in 2007
Top Ten Highest Paid Athletes in 2007
#1 - Tiger Woods ($100 million)
Golf - Probably the most famous sportsman in the world for a number of
years now, Tiger Woods heads our list of the top 10 highest paid
athletes of 2007. Regularly winning majors and other opens aroud the
globe, the golfer has made his earnings this year through competition
prize money and lucrative sponsorship deals.
#2 - Oscar De La Hoya ($43 million)
Boxing - Oscar De La Hoya's title fight with Floyd Mayweather in May
2007 may have ended unsuccessfully in the ring, but financially it
proved extremely successful with De La Hoya earning a record $43
million. More records were broken with highest gate receipts ($19
million), pay per view revenue ($120 million) and pay per view
audience (2.2 million).
#3 - Phil Mickelson ($42 million)
Golf - After a shaky string of results in the early year (including
blowing the 2006 US Open on the last hole), Phil Mickelson's season
picked up with the win at the Player's Championship, earning him $1.6
million (the highest ever PGA tour purse). This along with endorsement
deals from the likes of Ford and Exxon Mobil help to put Mickelson the
3rd highest paid athlete of 2007.
#4 - Kimi Raikkonen ($40 million)
Formula One - With the retirment of 7 time world chamion Michael
Schumacher, Ferrari needed a proven, experienced driver to fill his
boots. Kimi Raikkonen, with 5 years experience at the top with McLaren
appeared to be the right choice; Ferrari have signed him on a 3 year
contract that makes him the highest paid driver in Formula One.
#5 - Michael Schumacher ($36 million)
Formula One - The most successful driver ever in Formula one, with 7
championship titles, 91 race victories and 154 top-three finishes,
Michael Schumacher is in the list of highest paid athletes at number
5. Over his career, he earned $650 million in salary and endorsements
deals, and last year achieved arguably the pinnacle of his career
providing the voice of a Ferrari in the Disney-Pixar movie Cars.
#6 - David Beckham ($33 million)
Football/Soccer - The international football star (or "soccer" as the
Americans call it) has just made his move across the pond to the
States, having signed a lucrative contract with the Los Angeles
Galaxy. Initial reports of a $250 million 5-year deal proved over-
exaggerated, his basic salary realistically being $5.5 million a year.
However, "Goldenballs" will be earning lucrative cuts of gate reciepts
and merchansising, as well as the numerous endorsements he has with
the likes of Adidas and Pepsi.
#7 - Kobe Bryant ($33 million)
Basketball - This year, Bryant became the second player in the history
of the NBA to score at least 50 points in four straight games (The
first? Michael Jordan). In February, he claimed his second MVP title
for an All-Star game. Sony signed him to be the cover player for its
NBA '07 videogame, and his jersey was the best seller in China this
season.
#8 - Shaquille O'Neal ($32 million)
Basketball - Injuries and career low averages on points and rebounds
in the last NBA season look like signalling the last stages of his
professional career. However, it looks more likely that his future
will be lying in other businesses and media ventures; his newly formed
O'Neal Group will specialise in developing commercial and residential
property, while his new show Shaq's Big Challenge (a reality show
helping young kids to lose weight through exercise and sports) on ABC
looks like leading a way into TV for the big man.
#9 - Ronaldinho ($31 million)
Football/Soccer - The two-time FIFA player of the year was expected to
be the star of last year's World Cup. Endorsement deals were signed
with more than a dozen companies including Nike, Lenovo and Pepsi. But
he and his favoured Brazilian team flamed out early, losing in the
quarterfinals to France. A fruitless last season with his club
Barcelona only adds to his frustration, meaning he will hopefully be
fighting even harder next year to make it a successful one.
#10 - Michael Jordan ($31 million)
Basketball - Despite it being 4 years since his retirement from the
NBA, Michael Jordan is the 3rd basketball player to make it onto the
list. He made more news this year away from the court this past year
with the high profile divorce from his wife of 17 years Juanita Jordan
and $8 million lawsuit against WorldCom. Good new sfor Jordan is that
his Nike sneakers are still a $500 million business.


Source - Forbes, June 2007

Tags - People, Sports, Money

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mrliu918
2009-05-24 09:00:35 UTC
Permalink
Other than their track record of failure in military affair and
modern
warfare, Leung (aka Liang) and Lee ( aka Li) are thieves of the
century in professional boxing ?


Do not participate in underground ring and do not fight for the cheap
thief.


Quotation:


http://www.payscale.com/research/US/Job=Athlete_%2F_Sports_Competitor...


Top Ten Lists Of Everything - Home
Location: Top Ten Lists » People, Sports, Money » Top Ten Highest
Paid
Athletes in 2007
Top Ten Highest Paid Athletes in 2007
#1 - Tiger Woods ($100 million)
Golf - Probably the most famous sportsman in the world for a number
of
years now, Tiger Woods heads our list of the top 10 highest paid
athletes of 2007. Regularly winning majors and other opens aroud the
globe, the golfer has made his earnings this year through competition
prize money and lucrative sponsorship deals.
#2 - Oscar De La Hoya ($43 million)
Boxing - Oscar De La Hoya's title fight with Floyd Mayweather in May
2007 may have ended unsuccessfully in the ring, but financially it
proved extremely successful with De La Hoya earning a record $43
million. More records were broken with highest gate receipts ($19
million), pay per view revenue ($120 million) and pay per view
audience (2.2 million).
#3 - Phil Mickelson ($42 million)
Golf - After a shaky string of results in the early year (including
blowing the 2006 US Open on the last hole), Phil Mickelson's season
picked up with the win at the Player's Championship, earning him $1.6
million (the highest ever PGA tour purse). This along with
endorsement
deals from the likes of Ford and Exxon Mobil help to put Mickelson
the
3rd highest paid athlete of 2007.
#4 - Kimi Raikkonen ($40 million)
Formula One - With the retirment of 7 time world chamion Michael
Schumacher, Ferrari needed a proven, experienced driver to fill his
boots. Kimi Raikkonen, with 5 years experience at the top with
McLaren
appeared to be the right choice; Ferrari have signed him on a 3 year
contract that makes him the highest paid driver in Formula One.
#5 - Michael Schumacher ($36 million)
Formula One - The most successful driver ever in Formula one, with 7
championship titles, 91 race victories and 154 top-three finishes,
Michael Schumacher is in the list of highest paid athletes at number
5. Over his career, he earned $650 million in salary and endorsements
deals, and last year achieved arguably the pinnacle of his career
providing the voice of a Ferrari in the Disney-Pixar movie Cars.
#6 - David Beckham ($33 million)
Football/Soccer - The international football star (or "soccer" as the
Americans call it) has just made his move across the pond to the
States, having signed a lucrative contract with the Los Angeles
Galaxy. Initial reports of a $250 million 5-year deal proved over-
exaggerated, his basic salary realistically being $5.5 million a
year.
However, "Goldenballs" will be earning lucrative cuts of gate
reciepts
and merchansising, as well as the numerous endorsements he has with
the likes of Adidas and Pepsi.
#7 - Kobe Bryant ($33 million)
Basketball - This year, Bryant became the second player in the
history
of the NBA to score at least 50 points in four straight games (The
first? Michael Jordan). In February, he claimed his second MVP title
for an All-Star game. Sony signed him to be the cover player for its
NBA '07 videogame, and his jersey was the best seller in China this
season.
#8 - Shaquille O'Neal ($32 million)
Basketball - Injuries and career low averages on points and rebounds
in the last NBA season look like signalling the last stages of his
professional career. However, it looks more likely that his future
will be lying in other businesses and media ventures; his newly
formed
O'Neal Group will specialise in developing commercial and residential
property, while his new show Shaq's Big Challenge (a reality show
helping young kids to lose weight through exercise and sports) on ABC
looks like leading a way into TV for the big man.
#9 - Ronaldinho ($31 million)
Football/Soccer - The two-time FIFA player of the year was expected
to
be the star of last year's World Cup. Endorsement deals were signed
with more than a dozen companies including Nike, Lenovo and Pepsi.
But
he and his favoured Brazilian team flamed out early, losing in the
quarterfinals to France. A fruitless last season with his club
Barcelona only adds to his frustration, meaning he will hopefully be
fighting even harder next year to make it a successful one.
#10 - Michael Jordan ($31 million)
Basketball - Despite it being 4 years since his retirement from the
NBA, Michael Jordan is the 3rd basketball player to make it onto the
list. He made more news this year away from the court this past year
with the high profile divorce from his wife of 17 years Juanita
Jordan
and $8 million lawsuit against WorldCom. Good new sfor Jordan is that
his Nike sneakers are still a $500 million business.


Source - Forbes, June 2007


Tags - People, Sports, Money


Social BookmarksLink To This Page
add to del.icio.us
digg this
stumble it
add to facebook
HTML Code:
<a href="http://www.top10land.com/top-ten-highest-paid-athletes-
in-2007.html">Top Ten Highest Paid Athletes in 2007</a>
Copyright © 2008 Top10Land.com • Web Design by Webr


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Leung and Lee are thieves of the century in professional boxing ?

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Chairman MaObama
2009-05-31 06:38:10 UTC
Permalink
Can they beat your subs, you know at that secret base on Hainan Island?
Seawolf class submarine from USA 美國海狼級核動力攻擊型潛艇
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawolf_class_submarine
Seawolf class submarine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Class overview
Operators: United States of America
Preceded by: Los Angeles class
Succeeded by: Virginia class
Building: 0
Planned: 29
Completed: 3
Cancelled: 26
Active: 3
Lost: 0
General characteristics
Displacement: Surfaced: 8,600 tons
Submerged: 9,138 tons[1]
Length: 353 ft (107m)
Beam: 40 ft (12m)
Propulsion: 1 S6W PWR 45,000 hp, 1 secondary propulsion submerged
motor, 1 shaft, 1 Screw
Speed: Surfaced: 18 knots
Submerged: 25+ knots
Range: unlimited except by food supplies
Test depth: 610 Meters, approximately 2000 feet[2]
Complement: 140
Crew: 14 Officers; 126 Enlisted
Armament: 8x660mm torpedo tubes (50 Tomahawk cruise missile/Harpoon/
Mk-48 torpedo)
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Seawolf class submarines
The Seawolf class attack submarine (SSN) was the intended successor to
the Los Angeles class, ordered at the end of the Cold War in 1989. At
one time, an intended fleet of 29 submarines was to be built over a
ten-year period, later reduced to twelve. The end of the Cold War and
budget constraints led to the fleet being canceled at three boats in
1995, and led to the design of the smaller Virginia class.
They are quieter than the previous Los Angeles class submarines,
larger, faster, have twice as many torpedo tubes for a total of 8, and
carry more weapons, but were also much more expensive. They were
intended to combat the then-threat of large numbers of advanced Soviet
ballistic-missile submarines in deep ocean, such as the Typhoon class,
and to reply to the new Soviet Akula class attack submarines. They
were built using HY-100 steel rather than HY-80 steel which is what
previous classes had used. However they also have extensive equipment
for shallow-water operations, including a floodable silo capable of
deploying eight combat swimmers and their equipment at once. The boats
can also carry up to 50 UGM-109 Tomahawk cruise missiles for attacking
land and shipping targets.
海狼級核動力攻擊型潛艇
維基百科,自由的百科全書
跳轉到: 導航, 搜尋
海狼級
艇級概觀
艦種 核動力攻擊潛艇
艦名 {{{艦名}}}
擁有國 美國
前型 洛杉磯級
次型 維吉尼亞級
同型 三艘
竣工 2004年10月24日(首艘)
結局 現役
性能諸元
水上吃水 9.3m
水上排水 8600噸
潛航排水 9142噸
極限潛深 最大深度潛800尺(255米)
全長 353尺
全寬 40(10.36米)
動力系統 {{{動力系統}}}
葉軸 單軸靜音螺旋槳
水上極速 18節
水中極速 > 30節
乘員 134
魚雷 40具馬克48型魚雷(4個魚雷口)
可換成100枚水雷
火炮 {{{火炮}}}
飛彈 戰斧巡弋飛彈
(454 kg 高爆彈頭,射程250 nm)
8x26枚
其他武備 {{{其他武備}}}
艇體結構 單層外殼
續航力 {{{續航力}}}
自持力 無限
其他
海狼級攻擊潛艇 ,本是洛杉磯級的繼任者,在冷戰末期1989年開始建造。最昂貴的核潛艇,同時也被認為是最安靜的核潛艇。本來美國海軍打算在10年間
建造29艘海狼級潛艇後來減少到12艘。由於冷戰結束和預算限制,導致在1995年海狼級潛艇的訂單被取消,總共只建造了三艘海狼級潛艇,由較小的弗吉
尼亞級所取代 。
海狼級潛艇比以往洛杉磯級潛艇寧靜,更大,更快,有兩倍之多魚雷發射管,共8條,並攜帶更多的武器,但也昂貴得多。作用是打擊當時的威脅,一大批在深海
湧現的先進蘇聯 彈道飛彈潛艇,如颱風級 ,並回應新的蘇聯阿庫拉級核潛艇。但是他們也有廣泛的設備用作淺水作戰,其中包括一個浮筒倉能夠部署八個作戰
蛙人及其裝備。該船還可以攜帶多達50個戰斧巡弋飛彈攻擊陸地和船舶的目標。
mrliu918
2009-06-17 07:44:26 UTC
Permalink
Doping Lee and chemical Leung (aka Liang) - symtptoms of chemical and
biological weapon

Becareful of doping Lee and chemical Leung (aka Liang)! symtptoms of
chemical and biological weapon

Quotation about identification and treatment for chemical and
biological weapon from Taiwanese magazine and wikipedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731


軍事家觀察站
台灣陸軍化學兵學校

毒劑的種類和辨識

1 刺激性毒劑中毒時:眼睛流淚,疼痛,流鼻涕,咳嗽,呼吸困難,皮膚刺痛等癥狀。
2 癱瘓性毒劑中毒時: 心理失常, 暈眩, 嘔吐, 精神錯亂, 口乾舍燥, 全身疲倦,焦慮,產生恐懼感等癥狀。
3 窒息性毒劑中毒時: 流淚, 反胃, 嘔吐, 呼吸困難等癥狀。
4 感染糜爛性毒劑中毒時: 皮膚出現紅斑水泡, 傷口潰爛, 化膿等癥狀。
5 血液性毒劑中毒時: 頭暈目眩, 頭痛, 心神不安, 視力減退, 呼吸困難, 意識喪識等癥狀。
6. 精神性毒劑中毒時: 視力模糊, 瞳孔縮小, 昏迷, 呼吸困難, 惡心, 身體虛弱等癥狀。

uni-plex, cibion tab, antihist, duxaril, histaten, eurozyme tab,
ascorbic acid, paracetamol, prevachid, bronco-DM tab, acetaminophen,
amoxicillin, setamol, duxaril


化学武器的分类

化學武器戰劑可以根據何種方式影響人體大致分成幾類
種類 化學劑名稱 作用方式 症狀 作用時間 途徑及持久性
神經性毒劑 環沙林 (Cyclosarin) (GF)
沙林 (Sarin) (GB)
索曼 (Soman) (GD)
塔崩 (tabun) (GA)
VX
某些殺蟲劑
諾維喬克 (Novichok)
抑制乙醘膽鹼脢作用, 阻止 神經傳遞物質 乙醘膽鹼 在突觸的分解釋放而引發蕈毒鹼 和 尼古丁一樣作用(導致肌肉一直處於興奮狀態而引起肌肉痙
攣) 瞳孔放大(散瞳)
視野模糊/眼前昏暗
頭痛
噁心, 嘔吐, 腹瀉
流鼻水
四支麻痺/肌肉震顫
呼吸困難
癲癇
意識低下
蒸氣: 數秒到幾分鐘;
皮膚接觸: 2到18小時
VX 較為維持而其他戰劑較不持久;都具吸入及接觸毒性
血液性毒劑 大多數的 砷化合物
氯化氰 (CK)
氫氰酸 (AC)
砷化合物:造成溶血,可導致腎功能衰竭。
氯化氰/氫氰酸: 氰化物阻斷電子傳遞鏈,導致細胞無法利用氧氣. 迫使細胞進行厭氧呼吸, 產生過多 乳酸 而造成代謝性酸中毒.
皮膚、手指甲和嘴唇可能是粉紅色或櫻桃色
發紺
意識障礙
噁心
呼吸困難
代謝性酸中毒
立即發作 非持久性且為吸入毒性
腐爛性毒劑 芥子毒氣 (HD, H)
氮芥子氣 (Nitrogen mustard ) (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)
路易斯毒氣 (L)
光氣肟 (Phosgene oxime) (CX)
戰劑為酸性化合物損害皮膚和呼吸道系統, 造成灼傷和呼吸困難. 嚴重的皮膚,眼睛和粘膜疼痛及紅腫
皮膚紅斑與產生水泡,癒合慢,並可能成為感染
結膜充血,角膜浮腫及潰瘍
輕度呼吸窘迫引發呼吸道損害
芥子氣: 蒸氣: 4到6小時, 經眼睛或肺部會更快; 皮膚接觸: 2到48小時
路易斯毒氣: 即時
持續性且為接觸毒性
窒息性毒劑 氯氣
氯化氫
氮氧化物
光氣(CG)
類似糜爛性毒劑的機制, 但較多作用於呼吸道系統, 進而導致窒息; 痊癒者往往會有慢性呼吸困難. 呼吸道的刺激
眼睛及皮膚得燒灼感
呼吸困難, 咳嗽
喉嚨痛
胸悶
喘鳴
支氣管痙攣
即時到3小時 非持久性且為吸入毒性
刺激性毒劑/催淚性或催吐性 催淚瓦斯
胡椒噴霧
邻氯苯亚甲基丙二腈(CS)
亞當氏劑(DM)
苯氯乙酮(CN)
二苯氯砷(DA)
二苯氰砷(DC)
催淚性:造成嚴重眼睛刺痛及暫時性失明。
催淚瓦斯或胡椒噴霧:刺激眼睛造成不適
DM,DA,DC:引發嘔吐
即時 非持久性且為吸入毒性
失能性毒劑 二苯乙醇酸-3-奎寧環基酯 (BZ)
LSD
Causes atropine-like inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes
peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen
in nerve agent poisoning. 引發明顯情緒變化,幻覺等精神障礙
體溫過高
運動失調 (步伐不穩)
瞳孔放大(散瞳)
口渴
吸入: 30分鐘到20小時;
皮膚: 皮膚接觸到BZ後36小時以上. 期限通常是72到96個小時。
可持久性的存在於水中及固體表面; 具接觸性毒性
致死性毒素 生物蛋白質, 例如:

蓖麻毒素
相思子毒素(Abrin)
藉水解rRNA抑制蛋白合成 潛伏期4-8小時,之後有類似感冒的症狀
18-24小時後:
吸入: 噁心,咳嗽,呼吸困難,肺水腫
飲食: 胃腸道出血嘔吐和流血腹瀉;最終肝臟和腎臟衰竭。
4-24 小時 可經由注射或吸入及飲食 在自然環境中會快速降解


[编辑] 歷史


[edit] Classes
Chemical weapons are inert agents that come in four categories:
choking, blister, blood and nerve.[5] The agents are organized into
several categories according to the manner in which they affect the
human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from
source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents are
as follows:


Classes of chemical weapon agents Class of agent Agent Names Mode of
Action Signs and Symptoms Rate of action Persistency
Nerve Cyclosarin (GF)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
Tabun (GA)
VX
VR
Some insecticides
Novichok agents
Inactivates enzyme acetylcholinesterase, preventing the breakdown of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the victim's synapses and
causing both muscarinic and nicotinic effects Miosis (pinpoint
pupils)
Blurred/dim vision
Headache
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Copious secretions/sweating
Muscle twitching/fasciculations
Dyspnea
Seizures
Loss of consciousness
Vapors: seconds to minutes;
Skin: 2 to 18 hours
VX is persistent and a contact hazard; other agents are non-
persistent and present mostly inhalation hazards.
Asphyxiant/Blood Most Arsines
Cyanogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Arsine: Causes intravascular hemolysis that may lead to renal
failure.
Cyanogen chloride/hydrogen cyanide: Cyanide directly prevents cells
from using oxygen. The cells then uses anaerobic respiration, creating
excess lactic acid and metabolic acidosis.
Possible cherry-red skin
Possible cyanosis
Confusion
Nausea
Patients may gasp for air
Seizures prior to death
Metabolic acidosis
Immediate onset Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Vesicant/Blister Sulfur mustard (HD, H)
Nitrogen mustard (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)
Lewisite (L)
Phosgene oxime (CX)
Agents are acid-forming compounds that damages skin and respiratory
system, resulting burns and respiratory problems. Severe skin, eye and
mucosal pain and irritation
Skin erythema with large fluid blisters that heal slowly and may
become infected
Tearing, conjunctivitis, corneal damage
Mild respiratory distress to marked airway damage
Mustards: Vapors: 4 to 6 hours, eyes and lungs affected more rapidly;
Skin: 2 to 48 hours
Lewisite: Immediate
Persistent and a contact hazard.
Choking/Pulmonary Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
Nitrogen oxides
Phosgene
Similar mechanism to blister agents in that the compounds are acids
or acid-forming, but action is more pronounced in respiratory system,
flooding it and resulting in suffocation; survivors often suffer
chronic breathing problems. Airway irritation
Eye and skin irritation
Dyspnea, cough
Sore throat
Chest tightness
Wheezing
Bronchospasm
Immediate to 3 hours Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Lachrymatory agent Tear gas
Pepper spray
Causes severe stinging of the eyes and temporary blindness. Powerful
eye irritation Immediate Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Incapacitating Agent 15 (BZ)
Causes atropine-like inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes
peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen
in nerve agent poisoning. May appear as mass drug intoxication with
erratic behaviors, shared realistic and distinct hallucinations,
disrobing and confusion
Hyperthermia
Ataxia (lack of coordination)
Mydriasis (dilated pupils)
Dry mouth and skin
Inhaled: 30 minutes to 20 hours;
Skin: Up to 36 hours after skin exposure to BZ. Duration is typically
72 to 96 hours.
Extremely persistent in soil and water and on most surfaces; contact
hazard.
Cytotoxic proteins Non-living biological proteins, such as:

Ricin
Abrin
Inhibit protein synthesis Latent period of 4-8 hours, followed by flu-
like signs and symptoms
Progress within 18-24 hours to:
Inhalation: nausea, cough, dyspnea, pulmonary edema
Ingestion: Gastrointestinal hemorrhage with emesis and bloody
diarrhea; eventual liver and kidney failure.
4-24 hours; see symptoms. Exposure by inhalation or injection causes
more pronounced signs and symptoms than exposure by ingestion Slight;
agents degrade quickly in environment

There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by
the Chemical Weapons Convention, and thus are not controlled under the
CWC treaties. These include:
Defoliants that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic to
human beings. Some batches of Agent Orange, for instance, used by the
United States in Vietnam, contained dioxins as manufacturing
impurities. Dioxins, rather than Agent Orange itself, have long-term
cancer effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious birth
deformities.
Incendiary or explosive chemicals (such as napalm, extensively used by
the United States in Vietnam, or dynamite) because their destructive
effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force, and not direct
chemical action.
Viruses, bacteria, or other organisms. Their use is classified as
biological warfare. Toxins produced by living organisms are considered
chemical weapons, although the boundary is blurry. Toxins are covered
by the Biological Weapons Convention.



[edit] Biodefense
Main article: Biodefense
[edit] Role of public health departments and disease surveillance
It is important to note that all of the classical and modern
biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception
being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly
likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or
perhaps earlier than humans.
Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known – the anthrax
outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in
1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the
release point of the organism from a military facility in the
southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off
limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak).
Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and
veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of
an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast
majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill.
For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 - 36 hours
after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with
compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the
organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with
classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-ray
finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive
timely reports). By making these data available to local public health
officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate that
more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic
treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately
high mortality of the disease.
[edit] Identification of bioweapons
The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the
national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence,
diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers and
public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some
countries private, local, and state (province) capabilities are being
augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered
defenses against biological weapons attacks.
The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and
water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a
disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current
and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be
deliberate, multiple, and repetitive.
The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to
the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot
analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One such
technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence Livermore
National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in which
fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are
attached to silver and gold nanowires. [32]
Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a
different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen",
which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an
adaptation of the ELISA, a similar widely employed immunological
technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. [33]


Cold War
After World War II, the Allies recovered German artillery shells
containing the three German nerve agents of the day (tabun, sarin, and
soman), prompting further research into nerve agents by all of the
former Allies. Although the threat of global thermonuclear war was
foremost in the minds of most during the Cold War, both the Soviet and
Western governments put enormous resources into developing chemical
and biological weapons.
[edit] Developments by the Western governments
In 1952, researchers in Porton Down, England, invented the VX nerve
agent but soon abandoned the project. In 1958 the British government
traded their VX technology with the United States in exchange for
information on thermonuclear weapons; by 1961 the U.S. was producing
large amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. This
research produced at least three more agents; the four agents (VE, VG,
VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve
agents.
Also in 1952 the U.S. Army patented a process for the "Preparation of
Toxic Ricin", publishing a method of producing this powerful toxin.
During the 1960s, the U.S. explored the use of anticholinergic
deleriant incapacitating agents. One of these agents, assigned the
weapon designation BZ, was allegedly used experimentally in the
Vietnam War. These allegations inspired the 1990 fictional film
Jacob's Ladder.
In 1961 and 62 the Kennedy administration authorized the use of
chemicals to destroy vegetation and food crops in South Vietnam.
Between 1961 and 1967 the US Air Force sprayed 12 million US gallons
of concentrated herbicides, mainly Agent Orange (containing dioxin as
an impurity in the manufacturing process) over 6 million acres (24,000
km²) of foliage and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South
Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicides were sprayed over food
crops. Besides destroying vegetation used as cover by the NLF and
destroying food crops the herbicide was used to drive civilians into
RVN-controlled areas.[36]
In 1997, an article published by the Wall Street Journal reported that
up to half a million children were born with dioxin related
deformities, and that the birth defects in South Vietnam were fourfold
those in the North. The use of Agent Orange may have been contrary to
international rules of war at the time. It is also of note that the
most likely victims of such an assault would be small children. A 1967
study by the Agronomy Section of the Japanese Science Council
concluded that 3.8 million acres (15,000 km²) of land had been
destroyed, killing 1000 peasants and 13,000 livestock.
Between 1967 and 1968, the U.S. decided to dispose of obsolete
chemical weapons in an operation called Operation CHASE, which stood
for "cut holes and sink 'em." Several shiploads of chemical and
conventional weapons were put aboard old Liberty ships and sunk at
sea.
In 1969, 23 U.S. servicemen and one U.S. civilian stationed in
Okinawa, Japan, were exposed to low levels of the nerve agent sarin
while repainting the depots' buildings. The weapons had been kept
secret from Japan, sparking a furor in that country and an
international incident. These munitions were moved in 1971 to Johnston
Atoll under Operation Red Hat.

George H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev signing the bilateral treaty on
1990-06-01
A UN working group began work on chemical disarmament in 1980. On
April 4, 1984, U.S. President Ronald Reagan called for an
international ban on chemical weapons. U.S. President George H.W. Bush
and Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev signed a bilateral treaty on
June 1, 1990, to end chemical weapon production and start destroying
each of their nation's stockpiles. The multilateral Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) was signed in 1993 and entered into force (EIF) in
1997.
In December, 2001, the United States Department of Health and Human
Services, CDC, NIOSH, National Personal Protective Technology
Laboratory (NPPTL), along with the U.S. Army Research, Development
Engineering Command Edgewood Chemical/Biological Center (ECBC), and
the U.S. Department of Commerce National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST) published the first of six technical performance
standards and test procedures designed to evaluate and certify
respirators intended for use by civilian emergency responders to a
chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapon release,
detonation, or terrorism incident. To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published
six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach
that relies on traditional industrial respirator certification policy,
next generation emergency response respirator performance
requirements, and special live chemical warfare agent testing
requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer
respiratory protection against chemical, biological, radiological, and
nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards. These CBRN respirators are
commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus
(CBRN SCBA), air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR), air-purifying escape
respirator (CBRN APER), self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER)
and loose or tight fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN
PAPR). Current NIOSH-approved/certified CBRN respirator concept
standards and test procedures can be found at the webpage:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/standardsdev/cbrn/
[edit] United States Senate Report
A 1994 United States Senate Report, entitled "Is military research
hazardous to veterans health? Lessons spanning a half century,"[37]
detailed the United States Department of Defense's practice of
experimenting on animal and human subjects, often without their
knowledge or consent. This included:
Approximately 60,000 [US] military personnel were used as human
subjects in the 1940s to test the chemical agents mustard gas and
lewisite. "Mustard" section,[37]
Between the 1950s through the 1970s, at least 2,200 military personnel
were subjected to various biological agents, referred to as Operation
Whitecoat. Unlike most of the studies discussed in this report,
Operation Whitecoat was truly voluntary. "Seventh" section,[37]
Between 1951 and 1969, Dugway Proving Ground was the site of testing
for various chemical and biological agents, including an open air
aerodynamic dissemination test in 1968 that accidentally killed, on
neighboring farms, approximately 6,400 sheep by an unspecified nerve
agent."Dugway" section,[37]
[edit] Developments by the Soviet government
Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government, very little
information was available about the direction and progress of the
Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently. After the fall of
the Soviet Union, Russian chemist Vil Mirzayanov published articles
revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia. In 1993,
Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State Research
Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology, where he had worked for
26 years. In March 1994, after a major campaign by U.S. scientists on
his behalf, Mirzayanov was released.[38]
Among the information related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of
Soviet research into the development of even more toxic nerve agents,
which saw most of its success during the mid-1980s. Several highly
toxic agents were developed during this period; the only unclassified
information regarding these agents is that they are known in the open
literature only as "Foliant" agents (named after the program under
which they were developed) and by various code designations, such as
A-230 and A-232.[39]
According to Mirzayanov, the Soviets also developed weapons that were
safer to handle, leading to the development of the binary weapons, in
which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to
produce the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are
generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves,
this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great
deal simpler. Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much
easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique also
made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents a great
deal. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet
agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents (after
the Russian word for "newcomer").[40] Together with Lev Fedorov, he
told the secret Novichok story exposed in the newspaper Moscow News.
[41]
[edit] Iran–Iraq War

Victims of Iraq's poison gas attack in civil area during Iran–Iraq War
Chemical weapons employed by Saddam Hussein killed and injured
numerous Iranians, and even Iraqis. According to Iraqi documents,
assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in
many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the
Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France and China.[42]
The Iran–Iraq War began in 1980 when Iraq attacked Iran. Early in the
conflict, Iraq began to employ mustard gas and tabun delivered by
bombs dropped from airplanes; approximately 5% of all Iranian
casualties are directly attributable to the use of these agents.
[citation needed]
About 100,000 Iranian soldiers were victims of Iraq's chemical
attacks. Many were hit by mustard gas. The official estimate does not
include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or the
children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed blood,
lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for
Veterans. Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers
immediately, according to official reports. Of the 80,000 survivors,
some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still
hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions.[43][44][45]
Iraq also targeted Iranian civilians with chemical weapons. Many
thousands were killed in attacks on populations in villages and towns,
as well as front-line hospitals. Many still suffer from the severe
effects.
Despite the removal of Saddam and his regime by Coalition forces,
there is deep resentment and anger in Iran that it was Western
companies based in the Netherlands, West Germany, France, and the U.S.
that helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal in the first
place, and that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of
chemical weapons throughout the war.[46]
Shortly before war ended in 1988, the Iraqi Kurdish village of Halabja
was exposed to multiple chemical agents, killing about 5,000 of the
town's 50,000 residents [47]. After the incident, traces of mustard
gas and the nerve agents sarin, tabun and VX were discovered. (see
Halabja poison gas attack)
During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Coalition forces began a ground
war in Iraq. Despite the fact that they did possess chemical weapons,
Iraq did not use any chemical agents against coalition forces. The
commander of the Allied Forces, Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, suggested
this may have been due to Iraqi fear of retaliation with nuclear
weapons.[citation needed]
[edit] Falklands War
Technically, the reported employment of tear gas by Argentine forces
during the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands constitutes chemical
warfare.[48] However, the tear gas grenades were employed as nonlethal
weapons to avoid British casualties. The British claim that more
lethal, but possibly legally justifiable, white phosphorus grenades
were used.[49] The barrack buildings the weapons were used on proved
to be deserted in any case.
[edit] Terrorism
For many terrorist organizations, chemical weapons might be considered
an ideal choice for a mode of attack, if they are available: they are
cheap, relatively accessible, and easy to transport. A skilled chemist
can readily synthesize most chemical agents if the precursors are
available.
The earliest successful use of chemical agents in a non-combat setting
was in 1946, motivated by a desire to obtain revenge on Germans for
the Holocaust. Three members of a Jewish group calling themselves Dahm
Y'Israel Nokeam ("Avenging Israel's Blood") hid in a bakery in the
Stalag 13 prison camp near Nuremberg, Germany, where several thousand
SS troops were being detained. The three applied an arsenic-containing
mixture to loaves of bread, sickening more than 2,000 prisoners, of
whom more than 200 required hospitalization.
In July 1974, a group calling themselves the Aliens of America
successfully firebombed the houses of a judge, two police
commissioners, and one of the commissioner’s cars, burned down two
apartment buildings, and bombed the Pan Am Terminal at Los Angeles
International Airport, killing three people and injuring eight. The
organization, which turned out to be a single resident alien named
Muharem Kurbegovic, claimed to have developed and possessed a supply
of sarin, as well as 4 unique nerve agents named AA1, AA2, AA3, and
AA4S. Although no agents were found at the time he was arrested in
August 1974, he had reportedly acquired "all but one" of the
ingredients required to produce a nerve agent. A search of his
apartment turned up a variety of materials, including precursors for
phosgene and a drum containing 25 pounds of sodium cyanide.[50]
The first successful use of chemical agents by terrorists against a
general civilian population was on March 20, 1995. Aum Shinrikyo, an
apocalyptic group based in Japan that believed it necessary to destroy
the planet, released sarin into the Tokyo subway system killing 12 and
injuring over 5,000. The group had attempted biological and chemical
attacks on at least 10 prior occasions, but managed to affect only
cult members. The group did manage to successfully release sarin
outside an apartment building in Matsumoto in June 1994; this use was
directed at a few specific individuals living in the building and was
not an attack on the general population.
On 29 December, 1999, four days after Russian forces began assault of
Grozny, Chechen terrorists exploded two chlor tanks in town. Because
of the wind conditions, no Russian soldiers were injured.[51]
In 2001, after carrying out the attacks in New York City on September
11, the organization Al Qaeda announced that they were attempting to
acquire radiological, biological and chemical weapons. This threat was
lent a great deal of credibility when a large archive of videotapes
was obtained by the cable television network CNN in August 2002
showing, among other things, the killing of three dogs by an apparent
nerve agent.[52]
On October 26, 2002, Russian special forces used a chemical agent
(presumably KOLOKOL-1, an aerosolized fentanyl derivative), as a
precursor to an assault on Chechen terrorists, ending the Moscow
theater hostage crisis. All 42 of the terrorists and 120 of the
hostages were killed during the raid; all but one hostage, who was
killed, died from the effects of the agent.
In early 2007 multiple terrorist bombings have been reported in Iraq
using chlorine gas. These attacks have wounded or sickened more than
350 people. Reportedly the bombers are affiliated with Al-Qaeda in Iraq
[53] and have used bombs of various sizes up to chlorine tanker trucks.
[54] United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the
attacks as, "clearly intended to cause panic and instability in the
country."[55]


1946 to 1972
During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised
suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella
typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an
outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later
captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they
executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these
allegations.[18][19]
During the Cold War US conscientious objectors were used as consenting
test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation
Whitecoat.[20] There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on
the public during the Cold War.[21]

E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the
Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention
Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States
(see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably
other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is
generally believed that biological weapons were never used after World
War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who accused
the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons,
including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the
Korean War (1950-1953). Cuba also accused the US of spreading human
and animal disease on their island. [22] [23] Recently revealed
documents[24][25] indicate that this was disinformation produced by
Soviet intelligence.
At the time of the Korean War the US had only weaponized one agent,
brucellosis (agent US), which is caused by Brucella suis. The original
weaponized form used the M114 bursting bomblet in M33 cluster bombs.
While the specific form of the biological bomb was classified until
some years after the Korean War, in the various exhibits of biological
weapons that Korea alleged were dropped on their country nothing
resembled an M114 bomblet. There were ceramic containers that had some
similarity to Japanese weapons used against the Chinese in WWII,
developed by Unit 731.[10] Some of the Unit 731 personnel were
imprisoned by the Soviets[citation needed], and would have been a
potential source of information on Japanese weaponization. The head of
Unit 731, Lieutenant General Shiro Ishii, was granted immunity from
war crimes prosecution in exchange for providing information to the
United States on the Unit's activities.[26]
The Korean War allegations also stressed the use of disease vectors,
such as fleas, which, again, were probably a legacy of Japanese
biological warfare efforts. The United States initiated its
weaponization efforts with disease vectors in 1953, focused on Plague-
fleas, EEE-mosquitoes, and yellow fever - mosquitoes (OJ-AP).[citation
needed]. However, US medical scientists in occupied Japan undertook
extensive research on insect vectors, with the assistance of former
Unit 731 staff, as early as 1946.[26]
The United States Air Force was not satisfied with the operational
qualities of the M114/US and labeled it an interim item until the US
Army Chemical Corps could deliver a superior weapon. The Air Force
also changed its plans and wanted lethal biologicals.[citation needed]
The Chemical Corps then initiated a crash program to weaponize anthrax
(N) in the E61 1/2-lb hour-glass bomblet. Though the program was
successful in meeting its development goals, the lack of validation on
the infectivity of anthrax stalled standardization.[citation needed]
Around 1950 the Chemical Corps also initiated a program to weaponize
tularemia (UL). Shortly after the E61/N failed to make
standardization, tularemia was standardized in the 3.4" M143 bursting
spherical bomblet. This was intended for delivery by the MGM-29
Sergeant missile warhead and could produce 50% infection over a 7-
square-mile (18 km2) area.[citation needed] Unlike anthrax, tularemia
had a demonstrated infectivity with human volunteers (Operation
Whitecoat). Furthermore, although tularemia is treatable by
antibiotics, treatment does not shorten the course of the disease.
In addition to the use of bursting bomblets for creating biological
aerosols, the Chemical Corps started investigating aerosol-generating
bomblets in the 1950s. The E99 was the first workable design, but was
too complex to be manufactured.[citation needed] By the late 1950s the
4.5" E120 spraying spherical bomblet was developed; a B-47 bomber with
a SUU-24/A dispenser could infect 50% or more of the population of a
16-square-mile (41 km2) area with tularemia with the E120.[citation
needed] The E120 was later superseded by dry-type agents.
Dry-type biologicals resemble talcum powder, and can be disseminated
as aerosols using gas expulsion devices instead of a burster or
complex sprayer.[citation needed] The Chemical Corps developed
Flettner rotor bomblets and later triangular bomblets for wider
coverage due to improved glide angles over Magnus-lift spherical
bomblets.[citation needed] Weapons of this type were in advanced
development by the time the program ended.[citation needed]
Richard Nixon signed an executive order on November 1969, which
stopped production of biological weapons in the U.S. and allowed only
scientific research of lethal biological agents and defensive measures
such as immunization and biosafety. The biological munition stockpiles
were destroyed, and approximately 2,200 researchers became redundant
[17].
United States special forces and the CIA also had an interest in
biological warfare, and a series of special munitions was created for
their operations.[citation needed] The covert weapons developed for
the military (M1, M2, M4, M5, and M32 - or Big Five Weapons) were
destroyed in accordance with Nixon's executive order to end the
offensive program. The CIA maintained its collection of biologicals
well into 1975 when it became the subject of the senate Church
Committee.
mrliu918
2009-06-17 08:19:12 UTC
Permalink
Doping Lee(aka Li and chemical Leung (aka Liang) - symtptoms of
chemical and
biological weapon

Becareful of doping Lee and chemical Leung (aka Liang)! symtptoms of
chemical and biological weapon

Quotation about identification and treatment for chemical and
biological weapon from Taiwanese magazine and wikipedia

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_warfare
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_warfare
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unit_731

軍事家觀察站
台灣陸軍化學兵學校

毒劑的種類和辨識

1 刺激性毒劑中毒時:眼睛流淚,疼痛,流鼻涕,咳嗽,呼吸困難,皮膚刺痛等癥狀。
2 癱瘓性毒劑中毒時: 心理失常, 暈眩, 嘔吐, 精神錯亂, 口乾舍燥, 全身疲倦,焦慮,產生恐懼感等癥狀。
3 窒息性毒劑中毒時: 流淚, 反胃, 嘔吐, 呼吸困難等癥狀。
4 感染糜爛性毒劑中毒時: 皮膚出現紅斑水泡, 傷口潰爛, 化膿等癥狀。
5 血液性毒劑中毒時: 頭暈目眩, 頭痛, 心神不安, 視力減退, 呼吸困難, 意識喪識等癥狀。
6. 精神性毒劑中毒時: 視力模糊, 瞳孔縮小, 昏迷, 呼吸困難, 惡心, 身體虛弱等癥狀。

uni-plex, cibion tab, antihist, duxaril, histaten, eurozyme tab,
ascorbic acid, paracetamol, prevachid, bronco-DM tab, acetaminophen,
amoxicillin, setamol, duxaril

化学武器的分类

化學武器戰劑可以根據何種方式影響人體大致分成幾類
種類 化學劑名稱 作用方式 症狀 作用時間 途徑及持久性
神經性毒劑 環沙林 (Cyclosarin) (GF)
沙林 (Sarin) (GB)
索曼 (Soman) (GD)
塔崩 (tabun) (GA)
VX
某些殺蟲劑
諾維喬克 (Novichok)
抑制乙醘膽鹼脢作用, 阻止 神經傳遞物質 乙醘膽鹼 在突觸的分解釋放而引發蕈毒鹼 和 尼古丁一樣作用(導致肌肉一直處於興奮狀態而引起肌肉

攣) 瞳孔放大(散瞳)
視野模糊/眼前昏暗
頭痛
噁心, 嘔吐, 腹瀉
流鼻水
四支麻痺/肌肉震顫
呼吸困難
癲癇
意識低下
蒸氣: 數秒到幾分鐘;
皮膚接觸: 2到18小時
VX 較為維持而其他戰劑較不持久;都具吸入及接觸毒性
血液性毒劑 大多數的 砷化合物
氯化氰 (CK)
氫氰酸 (AC)
砷化合物:造成溶血,可導致腎功能衰竭。
氯化氰/氫氰酸: 氰化物阻斷電子傳遞鏈,導致細胞無法利用氧氣. 迫使細胞進行厭氧呼吸, 產生過多 乳酸 而造成代謝性酸中毒.
皮膚、手指甲和嘴唇可能是粉紅色或櫻桃色
發紺
意識障礙
噁心
呼吸困難
代謝性酸中毒
立即發作 非持久性且為吸入毒性
腐爛性毒劑 芥子毒氣 (HD, H)
氮芥子氣 (Nitrogen mustard ) (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)
路易斯毒氣 (L)
光氣肟 (Phosgene oxime) (CX)
戰劑為酸性化合物損害皮膚和呼吸道系統, 造成灼傷和呼吸困難. 嚴重的皮膚,眼睛和粘膜疼痛及紅腫
皮膚紅斑與產生水泡,癒合慢,並可能成為感染
結膜充血,角膜浮腫及潰瘍
輕度呼吸窘迫引發呼吸道損害
芥子氣: 蒸氣: 4到6小時, 經眼睛或肺部會更快; 皮膚接觸: 2到48小時
路易斯毒氣: 即時
持續性且為接觸毒性
窒息性毒劑 氯氣
氯化氫
氮氧化物
光氣(CG)
類似糜爛性毒劑的機制, 但較多作用於呼吸道系統, 進而導致窒息; 痊癒者往往會有慢性呼吸困難. 呼吸道的刺激
眼睛及皮膚得燒灼感
呼吸困難, 咳嗽
喉嚨痛
胸悶
喘鳴
支氣管痙攣
即時到3小時 非持久性且為吸入毒性
刺激性毒劑/催淚性或催吐性 催淚瓦斯
胡椒噴霧
邻氯苯亚甲基丙二腈(CS)
亞當氏劑(DM)
苯氯乙酮(CN)
二苯氯砷(DA)
二苯氰砷(DC)
催淚性:造成嚴重眼睛刺痛及暫時性失明。
催淚瓦斯或胡椒噴霧:刺激眼睛造成不適
DM,DA,DC:引發嘔吐
即時 非持久性且為吸入毒性
失能性毒劑 二苯乙醇酸-3-奎寧環基酯 (BZ)
LSD
Causes atropine-like inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes
peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen
in nerve agent poisoning. 引發明顯情緒變化,幻覺等精神障礙
體溫過高
運動失調 (步伐不穩)
瞳孔放大(散瞳)
口渴
吸入: 30分鐘到20小時;
皮膚: 皮膚接觸到BZ後36小時以上. 期限通常是72到96個小時。
可持久性的存在於水中及固體表面; 具接觸性毒性
致死性毒素 生物蛋白質, 例如:


蓖麻毒素
相思子毒素(Abrin)
藉水解rRNA抑制蛋白合成 潛伏期4-8小時,之後有類似感冒的症狀
18-24小時後:
吸入: 噁心,咳嗽,呼吸困難,肺水腫
飲食: 胃腸道出血嘔吐和流血腹瀉;最終肝臟和腎臟衰竭。
4-24 小時 可經由注射或吸入及飲食 在自然環境中會快速降解

[编辑] 歷史

[edit] Classes
Chemical weapons are inert agents that come in four categories:
choking, blister, blood and nerve.[5] The agents are organized into
several categories according to the manner in which they affect the
human body. The names and number of categories varies slightly from
source to source, but in general, types of chemical warfare agents
are
as follows:

Classes of chemical weapon agents Class of agent Agent Names Mode of
Action Signs and Symptoms Rate of action Persistency
Nerve Cyclosarin (GF)
Sarin (GB)
Soman (GD)
Tabun (GA)
VX
VR
Some insecticides
Novichok agents
Inactivates enzyme acetylcholinesterase, preventing the breakdown of
the neurotransmitter acetylcholine in the victim's synapses and
causing both muscarinic and nicotinic effects Miosis (pinpoint
pupils)
Blurred/dim vision
Headache
Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea
Copious secretions/sweating
Muscle twitching/fasciculations
Dyspnea
Seizures
Loss of consciousness
Vapors: seconds to minutes;
Skin: 2 to 18 hours
VX is persistent and a contact hazard; other agents are non-
persistent and present mostly inhalation hazards.
Asphyxiant/Blood Most Arsines
Cyanogen chloride
Hydrogen cyanide
Arsine: Causes intravascular hemolysis that may lead to renal
failure.
Cyanogen chloride/hydrogen cyanide: Cyanide directly prevents cells
from using oxygen. The cells then uses anaerobic respiration,
creating
excess lactic acid and metabolic acidosis.
Possible cherry-red skin
Possible cyanosis
Confusion
Nausea
Patients may gasp for air
Seizures prior to death
Metabolic acidosis
Immediate onset Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Vesicant/Blister Sulfur mustard (HD, H)
Nitrogen mustard (HN-1, HN-2, HN-3)
Lewisite (L)
Phosgene oxime (CX)
Agents are acid-forming compounds that damages skin and respiratory
system, resulting burns and respiratory problems. Severe skin, eye
and
mucosal pain and irritation
Skin erythema with large fluid blisters that heal slowly and may
become infected
Tearing, conjunctivitis, corneal damage
Mild respiratory distress to marked airway damage
Mustards: Vapors: 4 to 6 hours, eyes and lungs affected more
rapidly;
Skin: 2 to 48 hours
Lewisite: Immediate
Persistent and a contact hazard.
Choking/Pulmonary Chlorine
Hydrogen chloride
Nitrogen oxides
Phosgene
Similar mechanism to blister agents in that the compounds are acids
or acid-forming, but action is more pronounced in respiratory system,
flooding it and resulting in suffocation; survivors often suffer
chronic breathing problems. Airway irritation
Eye and skin irritation
Dyspnea, cough
Sore throat
Chest tightness
Wheezing
Bronchospasm
Immediate to 3 hours Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Lachrymatory agent Tear gas
Pepper spray
Causes severe stinging of the eyes and temporary blindness. Powerful
eye irritation Immediate Non-persistent and an inhalation hazard.
Incapacitating Agent 15 (BZ)
Causes atropine-like inhibition of acetylcholine in subject. Causes
peripheral nervous system effects that are the opposite of those seen
in nerve agent poisoning. May appear as mass drug intoxication with
erratic behaviors, shared realistic and distinct hallucinations,
disrobing and confusion
Hyperthermia
Ataxia (lack of coordination)
Mydriasis (dilated pupils)
Dry mouth and skin
Inhaled: 30 minutes to 20 hours;
Skin: Up to 36 hours after skin exposure to BZ. Duration is typically
72 to 96 hours.
Extremely persistent in soil and water and on most surfaces; contact
hazard.
Cytotoxic proteins Non-living biological proteins, such as:


Ricin
Abrin
Inhibit protein synthesis Latent period of 4-8 hours, followed by
flu-
like signs and symptoms
Progress within 18-24 hours to:
Inhalation: nausea, cough, dyspnea, pulmonary edema
Ingestion: Gastrointestinal hemorrhage with emesis and bloody
diarrhea; eventual liver and kidney failure.
4-24 hours; see symptoms. Exposure by inhalation or injection causes
more pronounced signs and symptoms than exposure by ingestion Slight;
agents degrade quickly in environment


There are other chemicals used militarily that are not scheduled by
the Chemical Weapons Convention, and thus are not controlled under
the
CWC treaties. These include:
Defoliants that destroy vegetation, but are not immediately toxic to
human beings. Some batches of Agent Orange, for instance, used by the
United States in Vietnam, contained dioxins as manufacturing
impurities. Dioxins, rather than Agent Orange itself, have long-term
cancer effects and for causing genetic damage leading to serious
birth
deformities.
Incendiary or explosive chemicals (such as napalm, extensively used
by
the United States in Vietnam, or dynamite) because their destructive
effects are primarily due to fire or explosive force, and not direct
chemical action.
Viruses, bacteria, or other organisms. Their use is classified as
biological warfare. Toxins produced by living organisms are
considered
chemical weapons, although the boundary is blurry. Toxins are covered
by the Biological Weapons Convention.


[edit] Biodefense
Main article: Biodefense
[edit] Role of public health departments and disease surveillance
It is important to note that all of the classical and modern
biological weapons organisms are animal diseases, the only exception
being smallpox. Thus, in any use of biological weapons, it is highly
likely that animals will become ill either simultaneously with, or
perhaps earlier than humans.
Indeed, in the largest biological weapons accident known – the
anthrax
outbreak in Sverdlovsk (now Yekaterinburg) in the Soviet Union in
1979, sheep became ill with anthrax as far as 200 kilometers from the
release point of the organism from a military facility in the
southeastern portion of the city (known as Compound 19 and still off
limits to visitors today, see Sverdlovsk Anthrax leak).
Thus, a robust surveillance system involving human clinicians and
veterinarians may identify a bioweapons attack early in the course of
an epidemic, permitting the prophylaxis of disease in the vast
majority of people (and/or animals) exposed but not yet ill.
For example in the case of anthrax, it is likely that by 24 - 36
hours
after an attack, some small percentage of individuals (those with
compromised immune system or who had received a large dose of the
organism due to proximity to the release point) will become ill with
classical symptoms and signs (including a virtually unique chest X-
ray
finding, often recognized by public health officials if they receive
timely reports). By making these data available to local public
health
officials in real time, most models of anthrax epidemics indicate
that
more than 80% of an exposed population can receive antibiotic
treatment before becoming symptomatic, and thus avoid the moderately
high mortality of the disease.
[edit] Identification of bioweapons
The goal of biodefense is to integrate the sustained efforts of the
national and homeland security, medical, public health, intelligence,
diplomatic, and law enforcement communities. Health care providers
and
public health officers are among the first lines of defense. In some
countries private, local, and state (province) capabilities are being
augmented by and coordinated with federal assets, to provide layered
defenses against biological weapons attacks.
The traditional approach toward protecting agriculture, food, and
water: focusing on the natural or unintentional introduction of a
disease is being strengthened by focused efforts to address current
and anticipated future biological weapons threats that may be
deliberate, multiple, and repetitive.
The growing threat of biowarfare agents and bioterrorism has led to
the development of specific field tools that perform on-the-spot
analysis and identification of encountered suspect materials. One
such
technology, being developed by researchers from the Lawrence
Livermore
National Laboratory (LLNL), employs a "sandwich immunoassay", in
which
fluorescent dye-labeled antibodies aimed at specific pathogens are
attached to silver and gold nanowires. [32]
Researchers at Ben Gurion University in Israel are developing a
different device called the BioPen, essentially a "Lab-in-a-Pen",
which can detect known biological agents in under 20 minutes using an
adaptation of the ELISA, a similar widely employed immunological
technique, that in this case incorporates fiber optics. [33]


Cold War
After World War II, the Allies recovered German artillery shells
containing the three German nerve agents of the day (tabun, sarin,
and
soman), prompting further research into nerve agents by all of the
former Allies. Although the threat of global thermonuclear war was
foremost in the minds of most during the Cold War, both the Soviet
and
Western governments put enormous resources into developing chemical
and biological weapons.
[edit] Developments by the Western governments
In 1952, researchers in Porton Down, England, invented the VX nerve
agent but soon abandoned the project. In 1958 the British government
traded their VX technology with the United States in exchange for
information on thermonuclear weapons; by 1961 the U.S. was producing
large amounts of VX and performing its own nerve agent research. This
research produced at least three more agents; the four agents (VE,
VG,
VM, VX) are collectively known as the "V-Series" class of nerve
agents.
Also in 1952 the U.S. Army patented a process for the "Preparation of
Toxic Ricin", publishing a method of producing this powerful toxin.
During the 1960s, the U.S. explored the use of anticholinergic
deleriant incapacitating agents. One of these agents, assigned the
weapon designation BZ, was allegedly used experimentally in the
Vietnam War. These allegations inspired the 1990 fictional film
Jacob's Ladder.
In 1961 and 62 the Kennedy administration authorized the use of
chemicals to destroy vegetation and food crops in South Vietnam.
Between 1961 and 1967 the US Air Force sprayed 12 million US gallons
of concentrated herbicides, mainly Agent Orange (containing dioxin as
an impurity in the manufacturing process) over 6 million acres
(24,000
km²) of foliage and trees, affecting an estimated 13% of South
Vietnam's land. In 1965, 42% of all herbicides were sprayed over food
crops. Besides destroying vegetation used as cover by the NLF and
destroying food crops the herbicide was used to drive civilians into
RVN-controlled areas.[36]
In 1997, an article published by the Wall Street Journal reported
that
up to half a million children were born with dioxin related
deformities, and that the birth defects in South Vietnam were
fourfold
those in the North. The use of Agent Orange may have been contrary to
international rules of war at the time. It is also of note that the
most likely victims of such an assault would be small children. A
1967
study by the Agronomy Section of the Japanese Science Council
concluded that 3.8 million acres (15,000 km²) of land had been
destroyed, killing 1000 peasants and 13,000 livestock.
Between 1967 and 1968, the U.S. decided to dispose of obsolete
chemical weapons in an operation called Operation CHASE, which stood
for "cut holes and sink 'em." Several shiploads of chemical and
conventional weapons were put aboard old Liberty ships and sunk at
sea.
In 1969, 23 U.S. servicemen and one U.S. civilian stationed in
Okinawa, Japan, were exposed to low levels of the nerve agent sarin
while repainting the depots' buildings. The weapons had been kept
secret from Japan, sparking a furor in that country and an
international incident. These munitions were moved in 1971 to
Johnston
Atoll under Operation Red Hat.


George H.W. Bush and Mikhail Gorbachev signing the bilateral treaty
on
1990-06-01
A UN working group began work on chemical disarmament in 1980. On
April 4, 1984, U.S. President Ronald Reagan called for an
international ban on chemical weapons. U.S. President George H.W.
Bush
and Soviet Union leader Mikhail Gorbachev signed a bilateral treaty
on
June 1, 1990, to end chemical weapon production and start destroying
each of their nation's stockpiles. The multilateral Chemical Weapons
Convention (CWC) was signed in 1993 and entered into force (EIF) in
1997.
In December, 2001, the United States Department of Health and Human
Services, CDC, NIOSH, National Personal Protective Technology
Laboratory (NPPTL), along with the U.S. Army Research, Development
Engineering Command Edgewood Chemical/Biological Center (ECBC), and
the U.S. Department of Commerce National Institute for Standards and
Technology (NIST) published the first of six technical performance
standards and test procedures designed to evaluate and certify
respirators intended for use by civilian emergency responders to a
chemical, biological, radiological, or nuclear weapon release,
detonation, or terrorism incident. To date NIOSH/NPPTL has published
six new respirator performance standards based on a tiered approach
that relies on traditional industrial respirator certification
policy,
next generation emergency response respirator performance
requirements, and special live chemical warfare agent testing
requirements of the classes of respirators identified to offer
respiratory protection against chemical, biological, radiological,
and
nuclear (CBRN) agent inhalation hazards. These CBRN respirators are
commonly known as open-circuit self-contained breathing apparatus
(CBRN SCBA), air-purifying respirator (CBRN APR), air-purifying
escape
respirator (CBRN APER), self-contained escape respirator (CBRN SCER)
and loose or tight fitting powered air-purifying respirators (CBRN
PAPR). Current NIOSH-approved/certified CBRN respirator concept
standards and test procedures can be found at the webpage:
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npptl/standardsdev/cbrn/
[edit] United States Senate Report
A 1994 United States Senate Report, entitled "Is military research
hazardous to veterans health? Lessons spanning a half century,"[37]
detailed the United States Department of Defense's practice of
experimenting on animal and human subjects, often without their
knowledge or consent. This included:
Approximately 60,000 [US] military personnel were used as human
subjects in the 1940s to test the chemical agents mustard gas and
lewisite. "Mustard" section,[37]
Between the 1950s through the 1970s, at least 2,200 military
personnel
were subjected to various biological agents, referred to as Operation
Whitecoat. Unlike most of the studies discussed in this report,
Operation Whitecoat was truly voluntary. "Seventh" section,[37]
Between 1951 and 1969, Dugway Proving Ground was the site of testing
for various chemical and biological agents, including an open air
aerodynamic dissemination test in 1968 that accidentally killed, on
neighboring farms, approximately 6,400 sheep by an unspecified nerve
agent."Dugway" section,[37]
[edit] Developments by the Soviet government
Due to the secrecy of the Soviet Union's government, very little
information was available about the direction and progress of the
Soviet chemical weapons until relatively recently. After the fall of
the Soviet Union, Russian chemist Vil Mirzayanov published articles
revealing illegal chemical weapons experimentation in Russia. In
1993,
Mirzayanov was imprisoned and fired from his job at the State
Research
Institute of Organic Chemistry and Technology, where he had worked
for
26 years. In March 1994, after a major campaign by U.S. scientists on
his behalf, Mirzayanov was released.[38]
Among the information related by Vil Mirzayanov was the direction of
Soviet research into the development of even more toxic nerve agents,
which saw most of its success during the mid-1980s. Several highly
toxic agents were developed during this period; the only unclassified
information regarding these agents is that they are known in the open
literature only as "Foliant" agents (named after the program under
which they were developed) and by various code designations, such as
A-230 and A-232.[39]
According to Mirzayanov, the Soviets also developed weapons that were
safer to handle, leading to the development of the binary weapons, in
which precursors for the nerve agents are mixed in a munition to
produce the agent just prior to its use. Because the precursors are
generally significantly less hazardous than the agents themselves,
this technique makes handling and transporting the munitions a great
deal simpler. Additionally, precursors to the agents are usually much
easier to stabilize than the agents themselves, so this technique
also
made it possible to increase the shelf life of the agents a great
deal. During the 1980s and 1990s, binary versions of several Soviet
agents were developed and are designated as "Novichok" agents (after
the Russian word for "newcomer").[40] Together with Lev Fedorov, he
told the secret Novichok story exposed in the newspaper Moscow News.
[41]
[edit] Iran–Iraq War


Victims of Iraq's poison gas attack in civil area during Iran–Iraq
War
Chemical weapons employed by Saddam Hussein killed and injured
numerous Iranians, and even Iraqis. According to Iraqi documents,
assistance in developing chemical weapons was obtained from firms in
many countries, including the United States, West Germany, the
Netherlands, the United Kingdom, France and China.[42]
The Iran–Iraq War began in 1980 when Iraq attacked Iran. Early in the
conflict, Iraq began to employ mustard gas and tabun delivered by
bombs dropped from airplanes; approximately 5% of all Iranian
casualties are directly attributable to the use of these agents.
[citation needed]
About 100,000 Iranian soldiers were victims of Iraq's chemical
attacks. Many were hit by mustard gas. The official estimate does not
include the civilian population contaminated in bordering towns or
the
children and relatives of veterans, many of whom have developed
blood,
lung and skin complications, according to the Organization for
Veterans. Nerve gas agents killed about 20,000 Iranian soldiers
immediately, according to official reports. Of the 80,000 survivors,
some 5,000 seek medical treatment regularly and about 1,000 are still
hospitalized with severe, chronic conditions.[43][44][45]
Iraq also targeted Iranian civilians with chemical weapons. Many
thousands were killed in attacks on populations in villages and
towns,
as well as front-line hospitals. Many still suffer from the severe
effects.
Despite the removal of Saddam and his regime by Coalition forces,
there is deep resentment and anger in Iran that it was Western
companies based in the Netherlands, West Germany, France, and the
U.S.
that helped Iraq develop its chemical weapons arsenal in the first
place, and that the world did nothing to punish Iraq for its use of
chemical weapons throughout the war.[46]
Shortly before war ended in 1988, the Iraqi Kurdish village of
Halabja
was exposed to multiple chemical agents, killing about 5,000 of the
town's 50,000 residents [47]. After the incident, traces of mustard
gas and the nerve agents sarin, tabun and VX were discovered. (see
Halabja poison gas attack)
During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, Coalition forces began a ground
war in Iraq. Despite the fact that they did possess chemical weapons,
Iraq did not use any chemical agents against coalition forces. The
commander of the Allied Forces, Gen. H. Norman Schwarzkopf, suggested
this may have been due to Iraqi fear of retaliation with nuclear
weapons.[citation needed]
[edit] Falklands War
Technically, the reported employment of tear gas by Argentine forces
during the 1982 invasion of the Falkland Islands constitutes chemical
warfare.[48] However, the tear gas grenades were employed as
nonlethal
weapons to avoid British casualties. The British claim that more
lethal, but possibly legally justifiable, white phosphorus grenades
were used.[49] The barrack buildings the weapons were used on proved
to be deserted in any case.
[edit] Terrorism
For many terrorist organizations, chemical weapons might be
considered
an ideal choice for a mode of attack, if they are available: they are
cheap, relatively accessible, and easy to transport. A skilled
chemist
can readily synthesize most chemical agents if the precursors are
available.
The earliest successful use of chemical agents in a non-combat
setting
was in 1946, motivated by a desire to obtain revenge on Germans for
the Holocaust. Three members of a Jewish group calling themselves
Dahm
Y'Israel Nokeam ("Avenging Israel's Blood") hid in a bakery in the
Stalag 13 prison camp near Nuremberg, Germany, where several thousand
SS troops were being detained. The three applied an arsenic-
containing
mixture to loaves of bread, sickening more than 2,000 prisoners, of
whom more than 200 required hospitalization.
In July 1974, a group calling themselves the Aliens of America
successfully firebombed the houses of a judge, two police
commissioners, and one of the commissioner’s cars, burned down two
apartment buildings, and bombed the Pan Am Terminal at Los Angeles
International Airport, killing three people and injuring eight. The
organization, which turned out to be a single resident alien named
Muharem Kurbegovic, claimed to have developed and possessed a supply
of sarin, as well as 4 unique nerve agents named AA1, AA2, AA3, and
AA4S. Although no agents were found at the time he was arrested in
August 1974, he had reportedly acquired "all but one" of the
ingredients required to produce a nerve agent. A search of his
apartment turned up a variety of materials, including precursors for
phosgene and a drum containing 25 pounds of sodium cyanide.[50]
The first successful use of chemical agents by terrorists against a
general civilian population was on March 20, 1995. Aum Shinrikyo, an
apocalyptic group based in Japan that believed it necessary to
destroy
the planet, released sarin into the Tokyo subway system killing 12
and
injuring over 5,000. The group had attempted biological and chemical
attacks on at least 10 prior occasions, but managed to affect only
cult members. The group did manage to successfully release sarin
outside an apartment building in Matsumoto in June 1994; this use was
directed at a few specific individuals living in the building and was
not an attack on the general population.
On 29 December, 1999, four days after Russian forces began assault of
Grozny, Chechen terrorists exploded two chlor tanks in town. Because
of the wind conditions, no Russian soldiers were injured.[51]
In 2001, after carrying out the attacks in New York City on September
11, the organization Al Qaeda announced that they were attempting to
acquire radiological, biological and chemical weapons. This threat
was
lent a great deal of credibility when a large archive of videotapes
was obtained by the cable television network CNN in August 2002
showing, among other things, the killing of three dogs by an apparent
nerve agent.[52]
On October 26, 2002, Russian special forces used a chemical agent
(presumably KOLOKOL-1, an aerosolized fentanyl derivative), as a
precursor to an assault on Chechen terrorists, ending the Moscow
theater hostage crisis. All 42 of the terrorists and 120 of the
hostages were killed during the raid; all but one hostage, who was
killed, died from the effects of the agent.
In early 2007 multiple terrorist bombings have been reported in Iraq
using chlorine gas. These attacks have wounded or sickened more than
350 people. Reportedly the bombers are affiliated with Al-Qaeda in
Iraq
[53] and have used bombs of various sizes up to chlorine tanker
trucks.
[54] United Nations Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon condemned the
attacks as, "clearly intended to cause panic and instability in the
country."[55]


1946 to 1972
During the 1948 Israel War of Independence, Red Cross reports raised
suspicion that the Jewish Haganah militia had released Salmonella
typhi bacteria into the water supply for the city of Acre, causing an
outbreak of typhoid among the inhabitants. Egyptian troops later
captured disguised Haganah soldiers near wells in Gaza, whom they
executed for allegedly attempting another attack. Israel denies these
allegations.[18][19]
During the Cold War US conscientious objectors were used as
consenting
test subjects for biological agents in a program known as Operation
Whitecoat.[20] There were also many unpublicized tests carried out on
the public during the Cold War.[21]


E120 biological bomblet, developed before the U.S. signed the
Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention
Considerable research on the topic was performed by the United States
(see US Biological Weapon Testing), the Soviet Union, and probably
other major nations throughout the Cold War era, though it is
generally believed that biological weapons were never used after
World
War II. This view was challenged by China and North Korea, who
accused
the United States of large-scale field testing of biological weapons,
including the use of disease-carrying insects against them during the
Korean War (1950-1953). Cuba also accused the US of spreading human
and animal disease on their island. [22] [23] Recently revealed
documents[24][25] indicate that this was disinformation produced by
Soviet intelligence.
At the time of the Korean War the US had only weaponized one agent,
brucellosis (agent US), which is caused by Brucella suis. The
original
weaponized form used the M114 bursting bomblet in M33 cluster bombs.
While the specific form of the biological bomb was classified until
some years after the Korean War, in the various exhibits of
biological
weapons that Korea alleged were dropped on their country nothing
resembled an M114 bomblet. There were ceramic containers that had
some
similarity to Japanese weapons used against the Chinese in WWII,
developed by Unit 731.[10] Some of the Unit 731 personnel were
imprisoned by the Soviets[citation needed], and would have been a
potential source of information on Japanese weaponization. The head
of
Unit 731, Lieutenant General Shiro Ishii, was granted immunity from
war crimes prosecution in exchange for providing information to the
United States on the Unit's activities.[26]
The Korean War allegations also stressed the use of disease vectors,
such as fleas, which, again, were probably a legacy of Japanese
biological warfare efforts. The United States initiated its
weaponization efforts with disease vectors in 1953, focused on
Plague-
fleas, EEE-mosquitoes, and yellow fever - mosquitoes (OJ-AP).
[citation
needed]. However, US medical scientists in occupied Japan undertook
extensive research on insect vectors, with the assistance of former
Unit 731 staff, as early as 1946.[26]
The United States Air Force was not satisfied with the operational
qualities of the M114/US and labeled it an interim item until the US
Army Chemical Corps could deliver a superior weapon. The Air Force
also changed its plans and wanted lethal biologicals.[citation
needed]
The Chemical Corps then initiated a crash program to weaponize
anthrax
(N) in the E61 1/2-lb hour-glass bomblet. Though the program was
successful in meeting its development goals, the lack of validation
on
the infectivity of anthrax stalled standardization.[citation needed]
Around 1950 the Chemical Corps also initiated a program to weaponize
tularemia (UL). Shortly after the E61/N failed to make
standardization, tularemia was standardized in the 3.4" M143 bursting
spherical bomblet. This was intended for delivery by the MGM-29
Sergeant missile warhead and could produce 50% infection over a 7-
square-mile (18 km2) area.[citation needed] Unlike anthrax, tularemia
had a demonstrated infectivity with human volunteers (Operation
Whitecoat). Furthermore, although tularemia is treatable by
antibiotics, treatment does not shorten the course of the disease.
In addition to the use of bursting bomblets for creating biological
aerosols, the Chemical Corps started investigating aerosol-generating
bomblets in the 1950s. The E99 was the first workable design, but was
too complex to be manufactured.[citation needed] By the late 1950s
the
4.5" E120 spraying spherical bomblet was developed; a B-47 bomber
with
a SUU-24/A dispenser could infect 50% or more of the population of a
16-square-mile (41 km2) area with tularemia with the E120.[citation
needed] The E120 was later superseded by dry-type agents.
Dry-type biologicals resemble talcum powder, and can be disseminated
as aerosols using gas expulsion devices instead of a burster or
complex sprayer.[citation needed] The Chemical Corps developed
Flettner rotor bomblets and later triangular bomblets for wider
coverage due to improved glide angles over Magnus-lift spherical
bomblets.[citation needed] Weapons of this type were in advanced
development by the time the program ended.[citation needed]
Richard Nixon signed an executive order on November 1969, which
stopped production of biological weapons in the U.S. and allowed only
scientific research of lethal biological agents and defensive
measures
such as immunization and biosafety. The biological munition
stockpiles
were destroyed, and approximately 2,200 researchers became redundant
[17].
United States special forces and the CIA also had an interest in
biological warfare, and a series of special munitions was created for
their operations.[citation needed] The covert weapons developed for
the military (M1, M2, M4, M5, and M32 - or Big Five Weapons) were
destroyed in accordance with Nixon's executive order to end the
offensive program. The CIA maintained its collection of biologicals
well into 1975 when it became the subject of the senate Church
Committee.
mrliu918
2009-06-27 05:52:19 UTC
Permalink
Rail transport in South Asia, Russia and Middle East
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-South_Express_Railway_(Vietnam)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Vietnam
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_India
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North-South_Express_Railway_(Vietnam)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_Republic_of_China
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Thailand
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Malaysia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Singapore
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Russia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Iran
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Turkey

North-South Express Railway (Vietnam)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
North-South Express Railway is a planned express railway in Vietnam.
The line starts in Hanoi, crosses provinces and municipalities of Hà
Nội, Hà Tây, Hà Nam, Ninh Bình, Thanh Hoá, Nghệ An, Hà Tĩnh, Quảng
Bình, Quảng Trị, Thừa Thiên-Huế, Đà Nẵng, Quảng Nam, Quảng Ngãi, Bình
Định, Phú Yên, Khánh Hoà, Ninh Thuận, Bình Thuận, Đồng Nai, Bình
Dương, Ho Chi Minh City. Total length is. The estimated cost is $32
billion. Japanese government agreed to cooperate with Vietnam in ODA
fundings, construction of this project. The project was officially
introduced to the government of Japan for assistance during the first
foreign visit of the Prime Minister of Vietnam Nguyen Tan Dung in
2006. The planned Hanoi-Saigon expressway in Vietnam was also
introduced this time. The memorandum of understanding for both mega
projects was mutually signed by the two governments then. [1] [2]

The preliminary topographical and geological surveillances have been
carried out by a Japanese-Vietnamese team. The project will be
implemented in stages with priority for two sections Hanoi-Vinh and Ho
Chi Minh City-Nha Trang during 2011-2015. Vinh-Nha Trang section will
start in 2020. Japanese express shinkansen bullet train is proposed on
this line. The new line will run independent of the old line. Standard
gauge ( 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in)) is proposed, inclusive of a double-
track line. The designed speed will reach 300 km/hour (compared to 50
km as of 2009). Once completed, travel time of Hanoi-Ho Chi Minh City
by rail will be reduced to 7 hours (compared to the fastest travel
time of 32 hours by rail as of 2009).[3]

[edit] Tracks
total: 2,652 km
standard gauge: 180 km
narrow gauge (metre gauge): 2,249 km 1.000 m gauge
dual gauge: 237 km NA-m gauges (three rails) (1998)

[edit] Railway links with adjacent countries
China - yes - break-of-gauge 1000 mm/1435 mm - 237 km dual gauge
Cambodia - no - same gauge 1000 mm
Laos - no - same gauge 1000 mm




[edit] Towns to be served by rail
Ho Chi Minh
Loc Ninh - near Cambodia border.
Di An - junction for Loc Ninh which borders Cambodia.
Cost of the Ho Chi Minh-Loc Ninh railway at US$438mil.

[edit] Urban Railways
Ho Chi Minh City Metro - Advanced Planning Stage

This section requires expansion.


[edit] Network
It has been suggested that this article or section be merged into
State Railway of Thailand. (Discuss)
[hide]Thai State Railway route map (excluding Mae Klong Line)
Legend

0.00 km Bangkok (Hua Lamphong)



[show]Eastern Line

5.17 km Makkasan

33.86 km Inland Container Depot

60.99 km Chachoengsao Junction



130.60 km Si Racha Junction



139.85 km Laem Chabang

180.00 km Khao Chi Chan Junction



200.48 km Map Ta Put

184.03 km Ban Plu Ta Luang

85.60 km Khlong Sip Kao Junction



121.78 km Prachin Buri


254.50 km Aranyaprathet

( to Poipet – Cambodia )

4.80 km Sam Sen

Thonburi (old)

Thonburi (formerly Bangkok Noi)

7.47 km Bang Sue Junction



[show]Southern Line

22.13 km Taling Chan Junction

64.17 km Nakhon Pathom

80.24 km Nong Pladuk Junction



157.65 km Suphanburi

133.09 km Kanchanaburi

210.29 km Nam Tok

( Burma Railway )

64.17 km Ban Pong

84.27 km Ratchaburi

117.36 km Phetchaburi

166.54 km Hua Hin

229.04 km Prachuap Khiri Khan

318.38 km Chumphon

484.58 km Lang Suan

549.35 km Ban Thung Pho Junction



678.05 km Khiri Ratthanikhom

651.07 km Surat Thani

708.78 km Ban Song

773.13 km Thung Song Junction



845.33 km Trang

866.13 km Kantang

797.06 km Khao Chum Thong Junction



832.07 km Nakhon Si Thammarat

862.06 km Phatthalung

944.63 km Hat Yai Junction



989.59 km Thai-Malaysian border

989.89 km Padang Besar

1025.26 km Pattani (Khok Pho)

1054.79 km Yala

1115.55 km Tanyong Mat


1159.04 km Sungai Kolok

( to Rantau Panjang – Malaysia )

( to Butterworth – Malaysia )

[show]To Ban Phachi

13.00 km Bang Khen

17.57 km Lak Si

22.21 km Don Muang

71.08 km Ayutthaya


89.95 km Ban Phachi Junction



[show]Northern Line

108.78 km Ban Mho

132.81 km Lopburi

245.78 km Nakhon Sawan

250.56 km Pak Nam Pho

297.03 km Bang Mun Nak

319.00 km Taphan Hin

346.79 km Phichit

381.87 km Bung Phra

389.28 km Phitsanulok

458.31 km Ban Dara Junction



487.14 km Sawankhalok

485.17 km Uttaradit

487.52 km Sila At

533.94 km Den Chai

642.29 km Nakhon Lampang

729.21 km Lamphun


751.42 km Chiang Mai

[show]Northeastern Line

98.04 km Nong Saeng

107.15 km Bang Pokpaek



125.10 km Kaeng Khoi Junction



128.80 km Ban Chong Tai

134.30 km Map Kabao

263.65 km Nakhon Ratchasima


266.28 km Thanon Chira Junction



[show]To Nong Khai



345.50 km Bua Yai Junction

407.72 km Ban Phai

449.75 km Khon Kaen

568.84 km Udon Thani


621.10 km Nong Khai

( to Vientiane – Laos )

[show]To Ubon Ratchathani

345.70 km Lam Plai Mat

376.02 km Buriram

398.65 km Krasang

419.75 km Surin

452.39 km Sikhoraphum

494.45 km Uthumphon Phisai

515.09 km Sisaket

542.18 km Kanthararom


575.10 km Ubon Ratchathani

Thailand has 4,431 kilometers of meter gauge railway tracks not
including mass transit lines in Bangkok.


[edit] Northern Line
The Northern Line begins alongside the Northeastern Line up until Ban
Phachi Junction. Here, it splits from the Northeastern Line and
proceeds through Lopburi, Nakhon Sawan, Phichit, Phitsanulok, Denchai
junction, Lampang, Lamphun, before finally reaching Chiang Mai 751
kilometers away from Bangkok. There is also a branch off the mainline
from Ban Dara junction to Sawankhalok in Sukhothai Province.


[edit] Northeastern Line
The Northeastern Line begins on the same route as the Northern Line,
splitting at Ban Phachi Junction towards Nakhon Ratchasima. Then at
Thanon Chira Junction, the line splits with one route passing Khon
Kaen and Udon Thani before terminating at Nong Khai 624 kilometers
from Bangkok. The other route passes through Buriram, Surin, Si Sa Ket
to reach Ubon Ratchathani, 575 kilometers from Bangkok.

There is also another branch route originating from Kaeng Khoi
Junction in Saraburi Province passing through Lamnarai in Lopburi
Province, Chaturat in Chaiyaphum Province, before joining the mainline
heading towards Nong Khai at Bua Yai Junction in Nakhon Ratchasima
Province.


[edit] Southern Line
The Southern Line begins in Bangkok and heads west towards Nakhon
Pathom before splitting into 3 different routes. One route heads west
towards Kanchanaburi Province (km 210) while another heads north
towards Suphan Buri (km 157). The Southern Line itself continues
southbound through Ratchaburi, Phetchaburi, Hua Hin, Prachuap Khiri
Khan Province, Chumphon, to Surat Thani 678 kilometers away. From
Surat Thani, there is a westerly branch towards Khiri Ratnikhom while
the main line continues south to Thung Song Junction in Nakhon Si
Thammarat Province where another branch reaches Kantang in Trang
Province. The main line from Nakhon Sri Thammarat continues through
Phatthalung before reaching Hatyai Junction in Songkhla Province. From
here, the line branches to connect with the Malaysian railway at
Padang Besar and Sungai Golok passing through Yala Province in the
process.


[edit] Eastern Line
The Eastern Line begins at Bangkok before heading through
Chacheongsao, Prachinburi to terminate at Aranyaprathet station in Sa
Kaew Province 255 kilometers later. There is an unused rail link to
Cambodia from Aranyaprathet. A branch line also connects Khlong 19 to
the Northeastern Line at Kaeng Khoi Junction. At Chacheongsao station,
there is another branch to Sattahip from which there is also another
branch to Sriracha Junction 139 kilometers from Bangkok. From Sriracha
Junction, there is yet another branch towards Laem Chabang deep sea
port and Mapthaphut.


[edit] Other lines
The Maeklong Railway is a line operated by the State Railway of
Thailand. It is independent of the national rail network and is split
into two sections. The line begins at Wong Wien Yai in Bangkok before
terminating at Mahachai where a ferry is used by passengers to cross
the Tha Chin river. The line starts again across the river towards Mae
Klong.


[edit] Rail transport in Bangkok
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, King Rama V eagerly built a tram
network for Bangkok by employing foreign engineers and technicians,
especially Danish engineers. In fact, Bangkok had electric trams
before Copenhagen. However, due to a lack of interest and maintenance
the tram network was completely scrapped in 1968.

Bangkok's first modern mass transit system, the BTS Skytrain, was
opened on 5 December 1999. It consists of 23 stations and 2 lines with
a combined route length of 23 kilometers and are run by 35 3-car EMU
trains built by Siemens. The railway uses third rail at 750V DC and
unlike the mainline railway, is standard gauge. On 3 July 2004, the
Bangkok Metro, a 21 kilometer 18 station underground mass transit rail
line was opened and is serviced by 19 3 car trains very similar to the
Skytrain. In 2007 a record number of passengers per day on the
Skytrain increased to nearly 400,000 while the number of passengers
for the Metro increased with 190,000 people per day.

[edit] Railway network

[edit] Heavy rail
Peninsular Malaysia
The intercity railway network in Peninsular Malaysia consists of two
main lines: The West Coast Line between Singapore and Padang Besar,
Perlis, on the Malaysian-Thai border, and the East Coast Line between
Gemas in Negeri Sembilan and Tumpat in Kelantan. There are also
several branch lines - between Kuala Lumpur and Port Klang, Batu
Junction and Batu Caves, Bukit Mertajam and Butterworth, Tapah Road
and Teluk Intan, Kempas and Tanjung Pelepas, Kempas and Pasir Gudang,
and between Pasir Mas and Rantau Panjang. The entire 1,699km network
uses meter gauge tracks.

The network is linked with the Thai railway network at Padang Besar
and Rantau Panjang.

A total of 332 km of the network is double-track and electrified. They
include portions of the West Coast Line between Seremban and Ipoh and
the entire Kuala Lumpur-Port Klang branch line as well as the stretch
between Kuala Lumpur and Sentul branch line. The double-track and
electrified portions between Kuala Kubu Bharu and Seremban and the
Port Klang to Kuala Lumpur branch lines are used as the commuter train
services.

Double-tracking and electrification of the stretch of the Batu Caves
branch line between Sentul and Batu Caves are in progress. When
completed, it will add 7.5km of double-track and electrified sections
to the network and expected to be completed in 2009. Double tracking
of the West Coast line between Ipoh and Padang Besar has started in
January 2008 and expected to be completed in 2012/2013 and will add a
further 329 km of double-track to the network.

Malaysia's national petroleum company Petronas owns a railway line
which links its oil refinery complex and the nearby town of Kerteh,
Terengganu, with the petrochemical complex in Gebeng, Kuantan and
Kuantan Port near Kuantan, Pahang. The line is mainly used to
transport petroleum products, but has recently been opened up for
general freight transport, with operation being conducted by KTM.
There have been proposals to extend the line to connect with the KTM
line at Mentakab, and even suggestions to go as far as Kuala
Terengganu and Tumpat

Sabah
There is a 134km railway line linking Tanjung Aru near Kota Kinabalu
and Tenom in the interior of Sabah state. The line is the only railway
on the island of Borneo. Besides normal passenger trains operated by
the Sabah State Railway Department, the tracks are also used to for
the North Borneo Railway tourist train. The line has been suffering
from lack of maintenance for many years and in 2006, the Malaysian
Government funded rehabilitation works for the line. A pipe dream is
to have a railway line from Kota Kinabalu to Kuching through Brunei
though the cost of this would mean seeking funding from Brunei.


[edit] 'High-speed' rail
Malaysia's only high-speed rail line is the 57km standard gauge line
between Kuala Lumpur and Kuala Lumpur International Airport. Depending
on whose definition is used, this line may not be defined as high-
speed because the maximum speed used is 160km/h. The line was
constructed by Express Rail Link Sdn Bhd, which also operates the two
train services which use the line, namely the KLIA Ekspres and KLIA
Transit. Ideas have been mooted to extend this line as far south as
Johor Bahru and as far north as Perlis using a genuine high-speed /
bullet train travelling at 300km/h. However, this proposed line did
not materialise.


[edit] Light rail
Main article: Public transport in Kuala Lumpur
There are three systems which are called light rail transits in
Malaysia. Two are used in Kuala Lumpur to ferry paying passengers
while the third is used at Kuala Lumpur International Airport to ferry
passengers from the Main Terminal Building and the satellite building.

The two lines in Kuala Lumpur are the Kelana Jaya Line and the Ampang
Line. The Kelana Jaya Line is a driver-less automatic system and is
29km long, running between the northeastern suburbs of Kuala Lumpur
and Petaling Jaya to the west of Kuala Lumpur. It is mostly elevated
except for a 4km stretch where it goes underground and there is a
short at-grade stretch. The Kelana Jaya Line was completely
operational from June 1999. The older Ampang Line is 27km and consists
of two lines, running between the suburb of Sentul in the north of
Kuala Lumpur, and Ampang in the east, as well as Sri Petaling in the
south. Trains branch off to either Ampang or Sri Petaling at Chan Sow
Lin station about midway of both lines. The system is mostly at-grade
outside the city, and elevated with it runs through the city. Unlike
the trains on the Kelana Jaya Line, those on the Ampang Line have
drivers. The line was completely opened on 1998.

The light rail system at Kuala Lumpur International Airport, called
the "Aerotrain", is a simple people-mover shuttle system running along
two 1,286 m guiderails between the Main Terminal Building and
Satellite Building. The two ends of the guiderails are elevated while
the middle portion goes under the main airport taxiway. Each rail has
a three-car automatic driver-less train.


[edit] Monorail
Main article: Monorails in Malaysia
Malaysia's only monorail system is used for public transport in Kuala
Lumpur. It is 8.6km long, running from Titiwangsa in the north of
central Kuala Lumpur, to KL Sentral just to the south of the city
center. It has 11 stations. The line consists of two parallel rails
for most of the way except at the end stations where switches merge
the two rails into a single rail before entering the station. The
entire network is elevated. The system uses two-car trains which were
manufactured in Malaysia. It is operated by KL Monorail Sdn Bhd.

There are proposals to construct monorails in Penang, Johor Bahru and
Malacca but opposition has been vociferously expressed by Penang and
Malacca residents concerned about the system being out of place in the
historic downtown areas. Melaka has since focused on the less
intrusive Aerorail. The federal administrative centre of Putrajaya was
also supposed to have a monorail network and the main station and
several metres of track have been built. However, the project has been
postponed because of costs and the Malaysian government felt that it
was not a priority project for the time being even though good public
transportation would attract many Malaysians to re-locate to this new
underpopulated city.

Melaka is currently constructing a 1.8 km Aerorail line for urban mass-
transit. For more information see Malacca Monorail


[edit] Funicular
The Penang Hill Railway in Penang is the only funicular railway system
in Malaysia. Although overwhelmingly used to ferry tourists up Penang
Hill, the train is also used by residents living in the hill. The line
is made up of two separate sections, with the total length at 1.2km.
Both sections are single lines with passing loops at midway. The
tracks are metre gauge and have an incline of over 50%. It is the only
funicular railway in East Asia other than the Peak Tram in Hong Kong.
There have been ideas mooted to build more funiculars on other major
hills in Malaysia as part of improving infrastructure to boost
tourism, but there are profitability concerns and worries that this
might damage the environment even though new roads are the worse
culprits.

Rail-based public transport in Kuala Lumpur
Further information: Public transport in Kuala Lumpur#Rail
Kelana Jaya Line
Between Terminal PUTRA (Gombak) and Kelana Jaya
23 stations over 29 km, operated by RapidKL Rail

Ampang Line (Yellow and Green lines)
Between Sentul Timur and Sri Petaling
18 stations over 15 km, operated by RapidKL Rail
Between Sentul Timur and Ampang
18 stations over 15 km, operated by RapidKL Rail

Sentul-Port Klang Line
Between Sentul and Port Klang
22 stations over 153 km, operated by KTM Komuter

Rawang-Seremban Line
Between Rawang and Seremban
23 stations over 153 km, operated by KTM Komuter

Rawang-Kuala Kubu Bharu Shuttle Service
Between Rawang and Kuala Kubu Bharu
5 stations over 22 km, operated by KTM Komuter

KL Monorail
Between KL Sentral and Titiwangsa
11 stations over 8.6 km, operated by KL Monorail

KLIA Ekspres
From KL Sentral to KLIA
Non-stop over 75 km, operated by ERL

KLIA Transit
Between KL Sentral and KLIA
5 stations over 75 km, operated by ERL


[edit] Railway operators


Rail transport in Singapore exists in three main types, namely an
international rail connection operated by Malaysian company Keretapi
Tanah Melayu, a rapid transit system collectively known as the Mass
Rapid Transit (MRT) system operated by the two biggest public
transport operators SMRT Corporation and SBS Transit, as well as
several Light Rail Transit (LRT) lines also operated by both
companies. In addition, local specialised light rail lines are in
operation in places such as the Singapore Changi Airport, Sentosa, or
within the grounds of the Jurong BirdPark.

Interurban railways

TRA Tze-Chiang express trainLong distance railways connecting several
major cities and urban areas.

Taiwan Railway Administration (台灣鐵路管理局): The TRA runs most of the main
passenger and freight lines in Taiwan forming a closed loop around the
island, as well as three branch lines.
Taiwan High Speed Rail (台灣高速鐵路): High speed rail system based on
Shinkansen technology, running along the western corridor. Operation
began on January 5, 2007.

[edit] Urban metro

Siaobitan station , Taipei Rapid Transit SystemWith the increasing
urbanization of Taiwan, several urban rapid transit systems have been
constructed with several more being planned.

Taipei Rapid Transit System (台北大眾捷運系統): The TRTS (also known as the
MRT, or MetroTaipei) runs an extensive network of VAL and elevated/
underground metro systems throughout the metropolitan Taipei area.
Taiwan Taoyuan International Airport Access MRT System (台灣桃園機場聯外捷運系統):
This line will connect Taipei Main Station, Taiwan Taoyuan
International Airport, and THSR Taoyuan Station. Construction begun in
2006. Scheduled for service in 2012.
Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit (高雄捷運系統): Underground metro system in
Kaohsiung. The red line is in operation as of March 9, 2008. The
orange line opened on September 14, 2008.
Kaohsiung Light Rail: Light rail system in downtown Kaohsiung.
Taichung Metropolitan Area MRT System (台中捷運): The project was approved
in 2004. Scheduled for service in 2015.[1]
Hsinchu Mass Rapid Transit System (新竹大眾捷運系統): Though not quite the
same as MRT's as seen elsewhere, the City of Hsinchu is building a
tranditional railway branch to connect Hsinchu Train Station more
conveniently to the Hsinchu High Speed Rail Station. It is also
scheduled for completion in 2010.
Tainan Mass Rapid Transit System (台南大眾捷運系統): As case in Hsinchu, a
tranditional railway brach is in built and the MRT project is still in
the planning phase.
Taoyuan Mass Rapid Transit System: A section of route had merged into
the Airport MRT system, but the surplus is still in the planning
phase.

[edit] International links
India has rail links with Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh.[25] It also
plans to install a rail system in southern Bhutan. A move to link the
railways of India and Sri Lanka never materialised. A ferry (a train
ferry?) service however connects the closest railheads between Indian
and Sri Lanka.

Pakistan

Before the Partition of India there were eight rail links between what
are now India and Pakistan. However, currently there are only two
actively maintained rail links between the two countries. The first
one is at Wagah in Punjab. The Samjhauta Express plies this route from
Amritsar in India to Lahore in Pakistan.[25] The second one, opened in
February 2006 runs between Munabao (in Rajasthan in India) and
Khokhrapar (in Sindh in Pakistan). Other disused links are:[25][26]

Ferozepur–Fazilka–Bahawalnagar–Samasata (through Anupgarh (India) /
Amruka & Fort Abbas (Pakistan) near the border). (Punjab)
Ferozepur–Kasur–Raiwind–Lahore (Punjab)
Amritsar–Attari–Lahore (Punjab)
Amritsar–Dera Baba Nanak–Narowal–Sialkot (Punjab)
Jammu–Sialkot
Bangladesh

After the creation of East Pakistan (later Bangladesh), many trains
that used to run between Assam and Bengal had to be rerouted through
the Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck). However as of 2005 there are
no passenger links between India and Bangladesh. A metre gauge link
exists between Mahisasan (Mohishashon) and Shahbazpur. Another link is
between Radhikapur and Birol. These last two links are used
occasionally for freight.[25][26]

Sealdah–Bongaon–Petrapol–Benapol–Jessore
Sealdah–Banpur–Gede–Abdulpur–Parbatipur–Haldibari–Siliguri
Katihar–Radhikapur–Biral–Parbatipur–Tista–Eetaldaha–Golakganj–
Fakiragram
Geetaldaha–Alipur duar
Mogalhat–Changrabandha–Domohani
Badarpur–Kalaura (Sylhet)
Nepal

There are two links between India and Nepal: Raxaul Jn., Bihar–
Sirsiya, Parsa and Jaynagar, Bihar–Khajuri, Dhanusa.[26] The former is
broad gauge, while the latter is narrow gauge.

[edit] International links
India has rail links with Pakistan, Nepal and Bangladesh.[25] It also
plans to install a rail system in southern Bhutan. A move to link the
railways of India and Sri Lanka never materialised. A ferry (a train
ferry?) service however connects the closest railheads between Indian
and Sri Lanka.

Pakistan

Before the Partition of India there were eight rail links between what
are now India and Pakistan. However, currently there are only two
actively maintained rail links between the two countries. The first
one is at Wagah in Punjab. The Samjhauta Express plies this route from
Amritsar in India to Lahore in Pakistan.[25] The second one, opened in
February 2006 runs between Munabao (in Rajasthan in India) and
Khokhrapar (in Sindh in Pakistan). Other disused links are:[25][26]

Ferozepur–Fazilka–Bahawalnagar–Samasata (through Anupgarh (India) /
Amruka & Fort Abbas (Pakistan) near the border). (Punjab)
Ferozepur–Kasur–Raiwind–Lahore (Punjab)
Amritsar–Attari–Lahore (Punjab)
Amritsar–Dera Baba Nanak–Narowal–Sialkot (Punjab)
Jammu–Sialkot
Bangladesh

After the creation of East Pakistan (later Bangladesh), many trains
that used to run between Assam and Bengal had to be rerouted through
the Siliguri Corridor (Chicken's Neck). However as of 2005 there are
no passenger links between India and Bangladesh. A metre gauge link
exists between Mahisasan (Mohishashon) and Shahbazpur. Another link is
between Radhikapur and Birol. These last two links are used
occasionally for freight.[25][26]

Sealdah–Bongaon–Petrapol–Benapol–Jessore
Sealdah–Banpur–Gede–Abdulpur–Parbatipur–Haldibari–Siliguri
Katihar–Radhikapur–Biral–Parbatipur–Tista–Eetaldaha–Golakganj–
Fakiragram
Geetaldaha–Alipur duar
Mogalhat–Changrabandha–Domohani
Badarpur–Kalaura (Sylhet)
Nepal

There are two links between India and Nepal: Raxaul Jn., Bihar–
Sirsiya, Parsa and Jaynagar, Bihar–Khajuri, Dhanusa.[26] The former is
broad gauge, while the latter is narrow gauge.

Rossiyskie Zheleznye Dorogi (RZhD)


The most important railway lines of Russia

Locale Russia
Dates of operation 1837–current
Track gauge 1,520 mm (4 ft 11+7⁄8 in)
Previous gauge 1,524 mm (5 ft)
Length 85,500 km (53,130 mi)
Headquarters Moscow
Website Russian Railways Official Site (English) (Russian)
Railway construction[1]
Route Length in km Date of Construction
Tabriz — Jolfa 148 1912—1916
Zahedan — Mirjaveh 94 1920—1921
Tehran — Bandar-Torkman 461 1928—1938
Tehran — Bandar-Emam Khomeini 928 1928—1939
Ahvaz — Khorramshahr 121 1942—1943
Sar Bandar — Mashhad 12 1950—1951
Garmsar — Mashhad 812 1938—1958
Tehran — Tabriz 736 1939—1959
Gorgan — Bandar-Torkman 35 1960—1961
Tabriz — Bazargan 192 1912—1971
Qom — Zerend 847 1939—1971
Isfahan — Zerrin-Shehr 111 1969-1972
Zerend — Kerman 80 1975—1979
Bafgh — Bandar-Abbas 626 1982—1995
Arpin — Maleki 24 1993—1997
Arpin — Mohammediya-2 122 1994—1999
Chadormalu — Meibod 219 1992—1999
Мohammediya-2 — Мohammediya-1 6 1994—1999
Bafgh — Kashmar 800 1992—2001
Isfahan — Shiraz 506 2009
Kerman - Zahedan 546 2009


[edit] Fleet

Link to Central Asia and Russia
In recent years the railways have undergone significant extensions
including the 1977 linking to the western railway system at the
Turkish border, the 1993 opening of the Bandar Abbas line providing
better access to the sea, and the 1996 opening of the Mashad–Sarakhs
extension as part of the Silk Road railway to link to the landlocked
Central Asian Countries. Former states of the Soviet Union have
railways using a wider gauge, thus the Iranian Railways maintain break-
of-gauge services at borders to Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan, and
beyond brief wide-track rail segments to the border crossing. In 2007,
Russian Railways, Iranian Railways and Azerbaijani State Railways
agreed on implementing the project to build a new line between Qazvin,
Resht, Astara, Iran and Astara, Azerbaijan. [6] In 2008, plans have
been made to connect Kazakstan to Iran via Turkmenistan.[7] In 2009,
Iran and Armenia agreed to build a railway linking Armenia with Iran’s
Persian Gulf ports.[8]


[edit] Links to Iraq, Syria and Afghanistan

Iran extends its railway system to Iraq and Syria(01-2007)Also under
construction are the Khorramshahr–Basra and the Kermanshah-Baghdad
line as a link with southern and northern Iraq,[9] and a line
connecting from Mashad to Herat in Afghanistan in the Eastern part of
the country.


[edit] International Standard Gauge route to Europe
The route to the west into Turkey terminates at Van with a 90 km (55
mile) train ferry for both freight wagons and international passenger
traffic (baggage car only) across Lake Van, which is at an altitude of
1650m (5,413 feet), to Tatvan. The standard gauge route continues via
Ankara to Istanbul via another train ferry between the Haydarapasa
terminus on the eastern side of the Bosphorus and the Sirkeci terminus
on the European shore. This crossing will be bypassed by the Marmaray
Crossing, a dual track rail tunnel, due to open in 2009.


[edit] Link to Pakistan
The construction of Bam to Zahedan was completed in early 2009
connecting Tehran to Pakistan border. With the completion of this
route, Asian and European railways are connected. Iran Railways is to
trying to persuade Pakistan Railways to convert its route to Quetta to
standard gauge to facilitate the flow of international traffic to
Europe. Pakistan responded in 2006 with a statement that it is to
convert its network to standard gauge (1.435m), and would plan a link
with the standard gauge system of China.


Also the railroad extension from Isfahan to Shiraz was completed in
early 2009, connecting Tehran to the City of Shiraz. Further extension
of this line to Bushehr and Bandar Abbas is planned. A line connecting
the city of Torbat-Hayderiayyah to Khaf on the border with Afghanistan
was also recently completed.

Operation
As the sole train operator in the country, TCDD operates all
passenger, freight and suburban railways, including domestic and
international departures. Until the opening of the Marmaray tunnel
(Bosporus undersea railway tunnel), the country will continue to have
two separate railway networks (in Thrace and Anatolia) that are only
connected through the Bosporus railway ferry in Istanbul.


[edit] International services

[edit] European services (from Sirkeci Terminal)
Bosphor Express (Bosfor Ekspresi) 81032 - 4644 - 462, Route: Istanbul,
Sirkeci Terminal, Turkey - Kapikule, Turkey - Svilengrad, Bulgaria -
Dimitrovgrad, Bulgaria - Rousse, Bulgaria - Bucharest, Romania and
back.
Balkan Express (Balkan Ekspresi) 490, Connects in Dimitrovgrad,
Bulgaria with Bosphor Express, Route: Dimitrovgrad, Bulgaria - Sofia,
Bulgaria - Niš, Serbia - Belgrade, Serbia and back.
Amity Express (Dostluk/Φιλια) 81022 - 445, Route: Istanbul, Sirkeci
Terminal, Turkey - Uzunköprü, Turkey - Pythion, Greece - Thessaloniki,
Greece and back. This is the night train with sleeping coach.
Istanbul - Thessaloniki Line, IC 90/91, 81712, 82902, Route: Istanbul,
Sirkeci Terminal, Turkey - Uzunköprü, Turkey - Pythion, Greece -
Alexandroupolis, Greece - Komotini, Greece - Xanthi, Greece - Drama,
Greece - Serres, Greece - Kilkis, Greece - Thessaloniki, Greece and
back. [1]

[edit] Asian (Middle-East) services (from Haydarpaşa Terminal)
Trans-Asia Express (Trans-Asya Ekspresi), Route: Istanbul, Haydarpaşa
Terminal, Turkey - Eskişehir, Turkey - Ankara, Turkey - Kayseri,
Turkey - Sivas, Turkey - Malatya, Turkey - Elazığ, Turkey - Muş,
Turkey - Tatvan, Turkey - Tatvan Trainwharf, Turkey - Van Trainwharf,
Turkey - Van, Turkey - Kapıköy, Turkey - Razi, Iran - Tebriz, Iran -
Tahran, Iran and back.
Van - Tabriz Line, Route: Van, Turkey - Özalp, Turkey - Kapıköy,
Turkey - Razi, Iran - Selmas, Iran - Tabriz, Iran and back.
Tahran - Damascus Line, Route: Tahran, Iran - Tebriz, Iran - Razi,
Iran - Kapıköy, Turkey - Van, Turkey - Van Trainwharf, Turkey - Tatvan
Trainwharf, Turkey - Muş, Turkey - Elazığ, Turkey - Malatya, Turkey -
Fevzipaşa, Turkey - Islahiye, Turkey - Meydanekbez, Turkey - via
Chemins de Fer Syriens - Aleppo, Syria - Damascus, Syria and back.
Taurus Express (Toros Ekspresi), Route: Istanbul, Haydarpaşa Terminal,
Turkey - Eskişehir (Enveriye), Turkey - Kütahya, Turkey - Afyon,
Turkey - Konya, Turkey - Adana, Turkey - Fevzipaşa, Turkey - Islahiye,
Turkey - Meydanekbez, Turkey - via Chemins de Fer Syriens - Aleppo,
Syria - Damascus, Syria and back.
Gaziantep - Baghdad, temporarily suspended since the 13th March 2003,
Route: Gaziantep, Turkey - Karkamış, Turkey - Akçakale, Turkey -
Ceylanpınar, Turkey - Şenyurt, Turkey - Nusaybin, Turkey - Al
Qamishli, Syria - via Chemins de Fer Syriens - El-Yaribieh, Iraq -
Rabia, Iraq - Mosul, Iraq - Baghdad, Iraq [2]

[edit] Suburban
There are four independent commuter train services in Turkey, two in
Istanbul, one in Ankara and one in Izmir, operated by TCDD. All four
services operate using either E8000 and/or E14000 electric multiple
units. The systems operate at up to quarter hour headway, though they
are not particularly well integrated into the respective city's
remaining urban rail systems.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport_in_the_People's_Republic_...http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orient_Expresshttp://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E6%96%B9%E5%BF%AB%E8%BB%8Ahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_and_Oriental_Expresshttp://johomaps.com/as/china/chinarail.html
[编辑] 其他东方快车
美洲东方快车(American Orient Express)在美国西部、加拿大及墨西哥行走,提供邮轮及五星级酒店的一系列服务,已改名为
GrandLuxe Rail Journeys。
亚洲东方快车(Eastern and Oriental Express)从吉隆坡出发,经马来西亚槟城、吉打州、泰国华欣、到达曼谷。
[编辑] 特别路线
主条目:ja:オリエント急行#オリエント急行'88
为纪念日本富士电视台30周年纪念,东方快车开出一列特别列车,于1988年9月7日在巴黎里昂火车站启程,途经东、西德、波兰、苏联、中国及香港,最
后以日本东京为终点站,全程15,494公里,同年9月26日下午2时45分驶进红磡火车站,同月尾把火车装箱由船运往日本下松港,完成是次旅程最后一
段路程[7]。
[编辑] 八纵通道
京哈通道:北京-天津-沈阳-哈尔滨-满洲里,全长2344公里。
沿海通道:沈阳-大连-烟大铁路轮渡-烟台-胶州-新沂-长兴-杭州-宁波-温州-福州-厦门-广州-湛江,全长4019公里。
京沪通道:北京-天津-济南-南京-上海,全长1463公里。
京九通道:北京-商丘-九江-南昌-龙川-深圳-九龙(香港特别行政区),全长2403公里。
京广通道:北京-石家庄-郑州-武汉-长沙-衡阳-株洲-广州,全长2265公里。
大湛通道:大同-太原-焦作-洛阳-石门-益阳-永州-柳州-湛江-海口,全长3108公里。
包柳通道:包头-西安-重庆-贵阳-柳州-(南宁),全长3011公里。
兰昆通道:兰州-成都-昆明,全长2261公里。
[编辑] 八横通道
京兰通道:北京-大同-包头-呼和浩特-兰州-西宁-拉萨,全长3943公里。
煤运北通道:两条通道,大同-秦皇岛,658公里,神木-黄骅,855公里。
煤运中南通道:两条通道,太原-石家庄-德州-(和长治-邯郸-)济南-青岛,侯马-月山-新乡-兖州-日照。
陆桥通道:连云港-徐州-郑州-西安-宝鸡-兰州-乌鲁木齐-阿拉山口,全长4120公里。
宁西通道:西安-南阳-信阳-六安-合肥-南京-(启东),全长1558公里。
沿江通道:重庆-荆门-武汉-九江-芜湖-南京-上海,全长1893公里。
沪昆(成)通道:上海-杭州-株洲-怀化-贵阳-昆明-(怀化-重庆-成都),全长2653公里。
西南出海通道:昆明-南宁-黎塘-湛江,全长1770公里。
中华人民共和国铁路运输
维基百科,自由的百科全书
跳转到: 导航, 搜索
“中国铁路”、“中国铁路运输”重定向至此。其余非属中国大陆的相关条目,详见香港铁路运输、澳门铁路运输、台湾铁路运输。
中华人民共和国拥有全世界第三大的铁路运输系统,规模仅次于美国及俄国。以铁路连接的邻国计有:哈萨克、蒙古、俄罗斯、朝鲜、越南与老挝(兴建中)等国
家。
目录 [隐藏]
1 历史
2 统计资料
3 铁路网
3.1 八纵通道
3.2 八横通道
4 线路等级
5 车站
6 铁路车辆
7 铁路机车
8 高速铁路
8.1 轮轨式高速铁路
8.2 磁悬浮高速铁路
9 旅客列车运营种类
10 城市轨道交通系统
10.1 华北地区
10.2 中国东北
10.3 华东地区
10.4 中南地区
10.5 西南地区
10.6 西北地区
11 参考资料及注释
12 参见
13 外部链接
[编辑] 历史
Eastern and Oriental Express
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
A Bangkok-bound Eastern & Oriental Express train, seen in part
stopping at the old Kuala Lumpur Railway Station, Malaysia. The
station was once an E&O Express stop before the opening of Kuala
Lumpur Sentral in 2001.
The Eastern & Oriental Express carries passengers in luxury between
Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand. The train travels through dense
rainforests and towering mountains past golden temples, rubber
plantations and remote towns and villages.
It runs between Singapore's Tanjong Pagar Railway Station and Hua
Lamphong, Bangkok, stopping at Kuala Lumpur Sentral, Butterworth and
Kanchanaburi, taking three days (two nights). Since 2007, the train
has also travelled between Bangkok and Vientiane, the capital city of
Laos.
[edit] Rolling stock
This luxury train was first built in Japan in 1972 and operated as the
Silver Star in New Zealand. Its carriages were then remodelled and
designed by G矇rard Gallet, the man behind much of the design and
refurbishment of other Orient-Express products such as the British
Pullman, and the Venice Simplon-Orient-Express.
[edit] Train schedule
The Eastern and Oriental Express operates a total of nine routes.
Day Location Arrive Depart
Thursday Singapore Tanjong Pagar Railway Station - 11:20
Thursday Kuala Lumpur Kuala Lumpur Sentral 19:45 20:30
Friday Butterworth (for Penang) 08:30 (Guided tour of George Town)
11:00
Saturday Kanchanaburi 08:45 (Guided tour of River Kwai) 11:25
Saturday Bangkok (Hua Lamphong station) 14:45 -
[edit] External links
Rail transport in the People's Republic of China
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Logo for China RailwaysRail transport is the most commonly used mode
of long-distance transportation in the People's Republic of China.
Almost all rail operations are handled by the Ministry of Railways,
which is part of the State Council of the People's Republic of China.
The 1,435 mm (4 ft 8+1⁄2 in) (standard gauge) rail network traverses
the length and breadth of the country, covering a total length of
78,000 kilometres (48,600 mi), making only the rail networks in the
United States and Russia larger in size[citation needed]. As of 2007,
Chinese Railway owned about 578,000 wagons, 44,000 coaches and 18,300
locomotives and ran more than 36,300 trains daily, including about
3000 passenger trains and 33,300 freight trains.[1] The network today
serves all provinces, with the exception of the special administrative
region of Macau.
As of October 2008, the the Chinese State Council approved a new CNY 2
trillion (US$ 292 billion) railway investment plan to take it up to
2020. The scheme extends mainland China's previously announced railway
building program, which was allocated CNY 1.25 trillion (US$ 182
billion) in the 11th five-year plan for 2006 to 2010. As a result of
the increased investment, the country's railway network is expected to
grow from 78000 km at the end of 2007 to 100000 km by the end of 2010
and ultimately 120000 km by 2020. Growth in freight transport is
thought to be one of the drivers behind the increased focus on rail,
and the need to increase capacity to meet rising demand.[2]
Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Qing Dynasty era (1876-1911)
1.2 Republic of China era (1912-1949)
1.3 People's Republic of China era (1949–)
2 Current network
2.1 Main lines
3 Railway management
3.1 Railway bureaus
4 Locomotives
4.1 Train speed limits
5 Passenger transport
5.1 Holidays
5.1.1 Chinese New Year
5.2 Cross-border services
5.2.1 Link to Hong Kong
5.2.2 Proposed link to Macau
5.2.3 Links to Russia
5.2.4 Links to Mongolia
5.2.5 Links to Kazakshtan
5.2.6 Links to Vietnam
5.2.7 Links to North Korea
6 High-speed rail
6.1 Conventional railways
7 References
8 See also
9 External links
[edit] History
Orient Express
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For other uses, see Orient Express (disambiguation).
Orient Express
Poster advertising the Winter 1888–1889 timetable for the Orient
Express
Info
Locale Europe
Transit type inter-city rail
Number of lines 5
Number of stations 18
Operation
Began operation 1883
Operator(s) Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits
Technical
System length 2,000 km (1,200 mi)
Track gauge 4 ft 8+1⁄2 in (1,435 mm) (standard gauge)
The Orient Express is the name of a long-distance passenger train
originally operated by the Compagnie Internationale des Wagons-Lits.
Its route has changed many times, and several routes have in the past
concurrently used the name (or slight variants thereof). Although the
original Orient Express was simply a normal international railway
service, the name has become synonymous with intrigue and luxury
travel. The two city names most intimately associated with the Orient
Express are Paris and Istanbul, the original endpoints of the service.
The current Orient Express does not serve Paris or Istanbul. Its
immediate predecessor, a through overnight service from Paris to
Vienna ran for the very last time from Paris on Friday, June 8, 2007.
Since then, the route, still called the "Orient Express", has been
shortened to start from Strasbourg instead,[1] occasioned by the
inauguration of the LGV Est which affords much faster travel times
from Paris to Strasbourg. The new curtailed service leaves Strasbourg
at 22.20 daily, shortly after the arrival of a TGV from Paris, and is
attached at Karlsruhe to the overnight sleeper service from Amsterdam
to Vienna.
Contents
[hide]
1 Train Eclair de luxe (the 'test' train)
2 Routes of Orient Express
3 Original train
4 Today
4.1 EN468-469 Orient-Express
5 Privately run trains using the name
6 Records
7 In popular culture
7.1 Literature
7.2 Film
7.3 Television
7.4 Music
7.5 Games and animation
8 See also
9 References
10 Further reading
11 External links
mrliu918
2009-07-03 09:18:27 UTC
Permalink
日本對外擴張主力: 日本海军陸戰隊和百年倭患

How USSR stopped Japan at the border in WWII

從甲午戰爭到二十一条条約; 從東北退到四川; 從反攻大陸到反對統一, 庸才誤國, 朽木不可雕。

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet-Japanese_Border_Wars
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Khasan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Khalkhin_Gol
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Strike_Group
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Strike_Group#Adoption_as_national_policy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_Imperial_Navy
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wokou

Nanshin-ron
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from South Strike Group)
Jump to: navigation, search
The Southern Expansion Doctrine (南進論, Nanshinron?) was a political
doctrine in the pre-World War II Empire of Japan which stated that
Southeast Asia and the Pacific Islands were Japan's sphere of interest
and that the potential value to the Japanese Empire for economic and
territorial expansion in those areas was greater than elsewhere.
This political doctrine was diametrically opposite that of the
Northern Expansion Doctrine (北進論, Hokushinron?), which stated the same
except with regards to Manchuria and Siberia.
There is a tendency to view the conflict between these doctrines as
only part of the long-running tension between the Imperial Japanese
Navy and Imperial Japanese Army over funding and strategy, although
this is an over simplification. Members of both branches of the
military supported both sides. After the military setbacks at Nomonhan
and the Mongolian front in the late 1930s, many Army supporters of the
"Strike North Doctrine" changed sides.
Contents
[hide]
1 Meiji period genesis
2 The South Pacific
3 Theoretical development
4 Economic development
5 Increasing militarization
6 Adoption as national policy
7 References
7.1 See also

Japanese strategic planning for mainland Asia (1905–1940)
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from North Strike Group)
Jump to: navigation, search
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality
standards. Please improve this article if you can. (December 2006)
This article is written like a personal reflection or essay and may
require cleanup. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an
encyclopedic style. (August 2008)
As a result of victories in the wars against China (1894–95) and
Czarist Russia (1904–05), Japan secured the basic elements of her
national desires—for the time being. Afterwards she undertook the
management of Manchuria. This marked the first step in Japan's policy
of developing of the Asiatic continent and of striving for racial
expansion (see Empire of Japan, imperialism in Asia).
By their very success, the major developments in national policies
greatly enhanced the already dominant role of national defence in
politics. They took place in an atmosphere of tension between the
Imperial Japanese Navy and Imperial Japanese Army, which was
unresolved in the period under discussion. The Army became associated
with strategic planning for mainland Asia, namely forward planning for
Asian land wars; and the North Strike group.
See also Japanese strategic planning for the Pacific (1905-1940) for
the Navy's concept, and the South Strike group.

[edit] Detailed planning of Japanese operations against the USSR
In 1934 Japanese Kantogun forces had four complete armored divisions,
18 air squadrons and 164,100 in infantry divisions. At a secret
military conference they fixed July 2 as X-day for the fight against
the Soviets. They concluded the following points: (a) initially not to
intervene in a Russo-German War; (b) to proceed with prudent
diplomatic negotiations, while consolidating secret preparations
against USSR; (c) if a Russo-German War turns out favorably for Japan,
to settle the Northern problem by force and maintain stability in
recent northern conquests. Accordingly, from the outbreak of a Russo-
German War the Chungking operation (Chinese war) should be suspended.
Army High Command was traditionally watchful towards the Soviet Union.
They considered the settlement of the 'China incident' incomplete,
because Japan was tied down by the USSR. At the root of the High
Command attitude towards the USSR lay the following consideration:
conflict between Japan and Russia was just a matter of time. It was
taboo for Japan to demonstrate weakness towards the Soviet Union.
Armaments were therefore the only means of stabilizing matters with
Russia.
The main objective of the Imperial Army would be to build up to the
strength necessary to occupy all the Maritime Province and Sakhalin
Island, while at same time securing Manchuria and occupying exterior
Mongolia and the Lake Baikal. Other probable objectives added to the
basic war plan were a possible invasion of Irkutsk-Krasnoyarsk (East-
Central Siberia), and/or an incursion to occupy Central Asia mainland.
After this secret conference, Imperial Headquarters ordered the
implementation of the revised policy toward the Soviet Union by
commencing large scale reinforcements of the Kantogun. To keep the
true reasons secret, the build-up was called the "Special Manoeuvers
of Kantogun" or "Kantokuen" for short. The 400,600 troops of the
Kantogun suddenly rose to over 700,000 and some billion Yen in
military funds were allocated. These manoeuvres prepared the use of
force against Soviet Union, based upon the prospect that the Russo-
German war might rapidly take a favorable turn for Germany. In the
event that force was used against the USSR, the new operational plan
of 1939 was scheduled to go into effect, whereby simultaneous
offensives were to be mounted north and east from Manchuria.
Additionally the new plan included landings in Soviet Far East islands
and coastal areas, and land operations in Outer Mongolia. Japan also
had in Manchuria 150,000 to 200,000 troops.
The Imperial Army anticipated the German offensive to commence in
1941-42. The Russians had to transfer several divisions from the Far
East to European sectors, but the USSR would never leave Siberia
defenseless, even if the war with Germany turned badly for her. It was
thought to be almost beyond the realm of possibility for the Soviet
Union to participate in a war between Japan and United States, of her
own accord, thereby having to wage two-front operations. Certain
reports mentioned the sending of 20 or 30 divisions to the European
battlefront.
Although the Kantogun had been reinforced, the Russo-German War for
which the Japanese Army had held such great expectations might not
turn out favorably for Germany, despite Hitler's boasts. A serious
problem consequently demanded response: how could the expanded
Kantogun pull through the rigorous cold of a Manchurian or Siberian
winter? Military materiel was geared to hypothetical mobile operations
against the Soviet Union, characterized by light weapons, large scale
logistical systems, light armored groups and many horses. If after the
southern operations are underway, the Soviet Army appeared to be
mounting an invasion of Manchuria, requisite forces could be diverted
there in ample time.
As defensive measures against any Soviet counteroffensive, Japan had
the primary goal of knocking out the Soviet Far Eastern Air Forces, as
necessary to protect Manchuria and Japan. The Kantogun laid plans for
a border defense system in 1934, but construction work did not begin
until 1935. To begin with, to 1938 only four zones were fortified in
East Manchuria, plus three in the north and one in the west.


Wokou
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article may require copy-editing for grammar, style, cohesion,
tone or spelling. You can assist by editing it now. (October 2007)
"Wakō" redirects here. For the city in Saitama, Japan, see Wakō,
Saitama.
For the Japanese department store, see Wako Department Store.

Sixteenth century Japanese pirate raids.
Wokou or Japanese pirates (Chinese character: 倭寇; Chinese
pronunciation: wōkòu; Japanese pronunciation: wakō; Korean
pronunciation: 왜구 waegu) were pirates who raided the coastlines of
China and Korea from the thirteenth century onwards. Originally, the
Wokou were mainly soldiers, ronin, merchants and smugglers from Japan,
but became predominantly from China two centuries later.
The early phase of Wokou activity began in the 13th century and
extended to the second half of the fourteenth century. Japanese
pirates from only Japan concentrated on the Korean peninsula and
spread across the Yellow Sea to China. Ming China implemented a policy
to forbid civil trade with Japan while maintaining governmental trade
(Haijin). The Ming court believed that limiting non-government trade
would in turn expel the Wokou. Instead, it forced many Chinese
merchants to protect their own interests by trading with Japan
illegally. This led to the second major phase of Wokou activity which
occurred in the early to mid-sixteenth century, where Japanese pirates
colluded with their Chinese counterparts and expanded their forces.
During this period the composition and leadership of the Wokou changed
significantly to become Chinese. At their height in the 1550s, the
Wōkòu operated throughout the seas of East Asia, even sailing up large
river systems such as the Yangtze.
The term "Wokou" is a combination of "Wō" (倭) referring to Japanese,
and "kòu" (寇), meaning "bandit; enemy; invasion". The earliest textual
reference to the term "Wokou" as the Japanese invader comes from the
Korean Gwanggaeto Stele erected in 414.[1] In modern times, the term
"Wokou" has been used in China and Korea as a derogatory or
propagandic term for Japanese invaders.
Contents
[hide]
1 Constituents
2 Kamakura period
3 Nanboku-chō period
4 Ming Dynasty tribute system
5 Ōei Invasion of Tsushima by Korean Joseon Dynasty
6 Later Wokou raids
6.1 Zhu Wan
6.2 Wang Zhi
6.3 Hideyoshi
7 Decline of the Wokou
7.1 Maritime trade
7.2 Portuguese influence
7.3 Japanese influence
8 References
9 Literature
10 See also
11 External links
Imperial Japanese Navy
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Japanese Imperial Navy)
Jump to: navigation, search
For Combined Fleet, please see that article.
For Carrier Striking Task Force, please see that article.
For Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force, please see that article.
Imperial Japanese Navy
(IJN)
大日本帝國海軍
(Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun)

The ensign of the Imperial Japanese Navy and Japan Maritime Self-
Defense Force.
Active 1869–1947
Country Empire of Japan
Allegiance Empire of Japan
Branch Combined Fleet
Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service
Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces
Type Navy
Engagements Taiwan Expedition of 1874
First Sino-Japanese War
Russo-Japanese War
World War I
Second Sino-Japanese War
World War II
Commanders
Notable
commanders Isoroku Yamamoto
Togo Heihachiro
Itoh Sukeyuki
Hiroyasu Fushimi
and many others
Insignia
Identification
symbol
Imperial Seal of Japan and Seal of the Imperial Japanese Navy
The Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) (Kyūjitai: 大日本帝國海軍 Shinjitai: 大日本帝国海軍
Dai-Nippon Teikoku Kaigun (help·info) or 日本海軍 Nippon Kaigun),
literally Navy of the Empire of Greater Japan also called the Empire
of the Sun was the navy of the Empire of Japan from 1869 until 1947,
when it was dissolved following Japan's constitutional renunciation of
the use of force as a means of settling international disputes. It was
the third largest navy in the world by 1920 behind the Royal Navy and
United States Navy.[1] It was supported by the Imperial Japanese Navy
Air Service for aircraft and airstrike operation from the fleet. It
was the primary opponent of the Allies in the Pacific War.
The origins of the Imperial Japanese Navy trace back to early
interactions with nations on the Asian continent, beginning in the
early medieval period and reaching a peak of activity during the 16th
and 17th centuries at a time of cultural exchange with European powers
during the Age of Discovery. After two centuries of stagnation during
the country's ensuing seclusion policy under the shoguns of the Edo
period, Japan's navy was comparatively backward when the country was
forced open to trade by American intervention in 1854. This eventually
led to the Meiji Restoration. Accompanying the re-ascendance of the
Emperor came a period of frantic modernization and industrialization.
The navy's history of successes, sometimes against much more powerful
foes as in the Sino-Japanese war and the Russo-Japanese War, ended in
almost complete annihilation during the concluding days of World War
II largely by the United States Navy (USN). The IJN was officially
dissolved in 1947.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins
1.1 Seclusion and Western studies
1.2 Early modernization of the Shogunal Navy
2 Creation of the Imperial Japanese Navy (1869)
2.1 British support
2.2 First interventions abroad (Taiwan 1874, Korea 1875–76)
2.3 Further modernization (1870s)
2.4 Influence of the French "Jeune Ecole" (1880s)
2.5 British shipbuilding
3 Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)
4 Suppression of the Boxer rebellion (1900)
5 Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905)
6 Towards an autonomous national Navy
7 World War I
8 Interwar years
9 World War II
9.1 Battleships
9.2 Aircraft carriers
9.3 Naval aviation
9.4 Submarines
9.5 Special Attack Units
9.5.1 Imperial Japanese Navy Land Forces
10 Bases and Facilities
10.1 Bases
10.2 Dockyards
10.3 Colleges and Training Facilities
10.4 Other
11 Self-Defense Forces
12 See also
13 Notes
14 References
15 External links
16 Further reading
mrliu918
2009-07-05 07:49:29 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

The most shameful and largest surrender of British-led military
personnel in history in the Battle of Singapore and Battle of Malaya

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya

[編輯] 馬來之虎
太平洋戰爭初期,1941年7月17日就任関東防衛軍司令官,11月6日轉任第25軍司令官,12月8日指揮馬來作戰,率領三萬五千兵力,1942年2
月15日兩週內迅速攻陷新加坡,俘虜十三萬名英國、印度與澳洲聯軍將士,是為英軍有史以來最大一次投降,故此日本傳媒稱他為「馬來之虎」。

縱使因馬來作戰成功,山下被奉為國民英雄,為戰史上裡唯一擊敗美、英、法、荷四大歐美強國、攻佔10國領地之戰將;但是昭和天皇沒有給機會讓山下拜見,
原因被認為是二二六事件當時山下所採取的行動。

Battle of Singapore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Battle of Singapore
Part of Pacific War (World War II)

Lt Gen. Arthur Percival, led by a Japanese officer, walks under a flag
of truce to negotiate the capitulation of Allied forces in Singapore,
on 15 February 1942. It was the largest surrender of British-led
forces in history.
Date January 31–February 15, 1942
Location Singapore, Straits Settlements
Result Decisive Japanese Victory, Japanese occupation of Singapore

Belligerents
Malaya Command:
III Corps
8th Division
18th Division
Malay Regiment
Straits Settlements Volunteer Force Twenty-Fifth Army
Imperial Guards
5th Division
18th Division
3rd Air Division
Imperial Navy
Commanders
Arthur Percival #
Gordon Bennett
Lewis Heath #
M. Beckwith-Smith # Tomoyuki Yamashita
Strength
85,000 36,000
Casualties and losses
2,000 killed
5,000 wounded
50,000 captured[1] 1,713 killed
2,772 wounded[2]



The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of
World War II when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold of
Singapore. Singapore was the major British military base in South East
Asia and nicknamed the "Gibraltar of the East". The fighting in
Singapore lasted from 7 February 1942 to 15 February 1942.

It resulted in the fall of Singapore to the Japanese, and the largest
surrender of British-led military personnel in history.[2] About
80,000 Indian, Australian and British troops became prisoners of war,
joining 50,000 taken by the Japanese in the Malayan campaign.
Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the ignominious fall
of Singapore to the Japanese the "worst disaster" and "largest
capitulation" in British history.

Contents [hide]
1 Background
2 Invasion of Malaya
3 Preparations
4 Japanese landings
5 Air war
6 Second day
7 Japanese breakthrough
8 Alexandra Hospital massacre
9 Fall of Singapore
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Bibliography
11.2 Notes
12 External links

Battle of Malaya
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Jump to: navigation, search
Battle of Malaya
Part of the Pacific Theatre of World War II

Japanese troops advancing through Kuala Lumpur.
Date 8 December 1941 – January 31, 1942
Location British Malaya
Result Japanese victory, Japanese occupation of Malaya, Emergence of
the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army

Belligerents
Malaya Command:
Indian III Corps
8th Division
Malay Regiment
53rd Infantry Brigade
Netherlands
New Zealand Twenty-Fifth Army:
Imperial Guards
5th Division
18th Division
3rd Air Division
Commanders
Arthur Percival Tomoyuki Yamashita
Strength
140,000
158 aircraft 70,000
568 aircraft
200 tanks
Casualties and losses
5,500 killed
5,000 wounded
40,000 PoW[1] 1,793 killed
3,378 wounded[2]


The Battle of Malaya was a campaign fought by Allied and Japanese
forces in Malaya, from December 8, 1941 to January 31, 1942 during the
Second World War. The campaign was dominated by land battles between
British Commonwealth army units, and the Imperial Japanese Army. For
the British, Indian, Australian and Malayan forces defending the
colony, the campaign was a disaster.


The freewill to seek courage in La Marseillaise

The scene of Japanese butterflies (Lee and Leung) gang raping a girl
in public simply sicken me.

Those Frenchmen rushing to rescue were betrayed by English Canadian in
British Canada; they were poisoned, shipped to Japan and mostly likely
being massacred on street They might be forced to fight to their death
alone without alliance and aid; but their soul will return home.

I am surprise on how Frenchmen can put up with the betrayal and
tyranny of English Canadian.

I will be happy to work with you and fight for you after Quebec
declare independence or is no longer a part of Canada.

May the soul of La Marseillaise and the spirit of Statue of Liberty be
with you.

Sincerely

Yu Fung Liu
Making the right choice in your life.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marseillaise
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_Of_Liberty

La Marseillaise

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Allons enfants de la Patrie, Arise, children of the Fatherland,
Le jour de gloire est arrivé ! The day of glory has arrived!
Contre nous de la tyrannie, Against us tyranny's
L'étendard sanglant est levé, (bis) bloodied banner is raised,
(repeat)
Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Do you hear in the countryside
Mugir ces féroces soldats ? The roar of those ferocious soldiers?
Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras They come right here into your
midst
Égorger vos fils, vos compagnes ! To slit the throats of your sons and
wives!

Aux armes, citoyens, To arms, citizens,
Formez vos bataillons, Form your battalions,
Marchons, marchons ! Let's march, let's march!
Qu'un sang impur May a tainted blood
Abreuve nos sillons ! Drench our furrows!

Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, What does this horde of slaves,
De traîtres, de rois conjurés ? Of traitors and conspiring kings
want?
Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, For whom [are] these vile chains,
Ces fers dès longtemps préparés ? (bis) These long-prepared irons?
(repeat)
Français, pour nous, ah ! quel outrage Frenchmen, for us, ah! What an
insult
Quels transports il doit exciter ! What fury it must arouse!
C'est nous qu'on ose méditer It is we whom they dare plan
De rendre à l'antique esclavage ! To return to the old slavery!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Quoi ! des cohortes étrangères What! Foreign cohorts!
Feraient la loi dans nos foyers ! Would rule our homes!
Quoi ! ces phalanges mercenaires What! These mercenary phalanxes
Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers ! (bis) Would cut down our proud
warriors! (repeat)
Grand Dieu ! par des mains enchaînées Great God ! By chained hands
Nos fronts sous le joug se ploieraient Our heads would bow under the
yoke
De vils despotes deviendraient Vile despots would become
Les maîtres de nos destinées ! The masters of our destinies!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Tremblez, tyrans et vous perfides Tremble, tyrants and traitors
L'opprobre de tous les partis, The shame of all good men,
Tremblez ! vos projets parricides Tremble! Your parricidal schemes
Vont enfin recevoir leurs prix ! (bis) Will finally receive their just
reward! (repeat)
Tout est soldat pour vous combattre, Against you, we are all
soldiers,
S'ils tombent, nos jeunes héros, If our young heroes fall,
La terre en produit de nouveaux, The earth will bear new ones,
Contre vous tout prêts à se battre ! Ready to join the fight against
you!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Français, en guerriers magnanimes, Frenchmen, as magnanimous
warriors,
Portez ou retenez vos coups ! Bear or hold back your blows!
Épargnez ces tristes victimes, Spare these sorry victims,
À regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Armed against us against their
will. (repeat)
Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, But not these blood-thirsty despots,
Mais ces complices de Bouillé, These accomplices of Bouillé,
Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitié, All these tigers who mercilessly
Déchirent le sein de leur mère ! Slash their mother's breast!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Amour sacré de la Patrie, Sacred patriotic love,
Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs Lead and support our avenging
arms
Liberté, Liberté chérie, Liberty, cherished liberty,
Combats avec tes défenseurs ! (bis) Fight back with your defenders!
(repeat)
Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Under our flags, let victory
Accoure à tes mâles accents, Hurry to your manly tone,
Que tes ennemis expirants So that your dying enemies,
Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire ! See your triumph and our glory!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

(Couplet des enfants) (Children's Verse)
Nous entrerons dans la carrière[3] We shall enter the (military)
career
Quand nos aînés n'y seront plus, When our elders are no longer there,
Nous y trouverons leur poussière There we shall find their dust
Et la trace de leurs vertus (bis) And the mark of their virtues
(repeat)
Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Much less jealous to survive them
Que de partager leur cercueil, Than to share their coffins,
Nous aurons le sublime orgueil We shall have the sublime pride
De les venger ou de les suivre Of avenging or following them

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...



The Star-Spangled Banner

O! say can you see by the dawn's early light
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there.
O! say does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines in the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner! Oh long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion,
A home and a country should leave us no more!
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

O! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved home and the war's desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: 'In God is our trust.'
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave![10]



The Statue of Liberty (French: Statue de la Liberté), officially
titled Liberty Enlightening the World (French: La liberté éclairant le
monde), is a monument that was presented by the people of France to
the United States of America in 1886 to celebrate its centennial.
Standing on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, it welcomes visitors,
immigrants, and returning Americans traveling by ship.[5] The copper-
clad statue, dedicated on October 28, 1886, commemorates the
centennial of the signing of the United States Declaration of
Independence and was given to the United States by France to represent
the friendship between the two countries established during the
American Revolution.[6] Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi sculpted the statue
[7] and obtained a U.S. patent for its structure.[8] Maurice Koechlin—
chief engineer of Gustave Eiffel's engineering company and designer of
the Eiffel Tower—engineered the internal structure. Eugène Viollet-le-
Duc was responsible for the choice of copper in the statue's
construction and adoption of the repoussé technique, where a malleable
metal is hammered on the reverse side.[9]



Statue of Liberty
The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor
Location: Liberty Island, New York City, New York, U.S.[1]
Coordinates: 40°41′38″N 74°2′37″W / 40.69389°N 74.04361°W /
40.69389; -74.04361
Area: 12 acres (49,000 m2)[2]
Built: October 28, 1886
Architect: Frederic Auguste Bartholdi
Visitation: 4,235,595 (includes Ellis Island NM) (2005)
Governing body: U.S. National Park Service
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type: Cultural
Criteria: i, vi
Designated: 1984 (8th session)
Reference #: 307
Region: Europe and North America
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
Official name: Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and
Liberty Island
Designated: October 15, 1966[3]
Reference #: 66000058
U.S. National Monument
Designated: October 15, 1924
Designated by President: Calvin Coolidge[4]
New York City Landmark
Type: Individual
Designated: September 14, 1976
mrliu918
2009-07-05 08:59:39 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

The most shameful and largest surrender of British-led military
personnel in history in the Battle of Singapore and Battle of Malaya

The number of surrender was between four hundred thousand (400,000) to
eighty thousands (800,000) on wikipedia ten years ago.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya


[編輯] 馬來之虎
太平洋戰爭初期,1941年7月17日就任関東防衛軍司令官,11月6日轉任第25軍司令官,12月8日指揮馬來作戰,率領三萬五千兵力,1942年
2
月15日兩週內迅速攻陷新加坡,俘虜十三萬名英國、印度與澳洲聯軍將士,是為英軍有史以來最大一次投降,故此日本傳媒稱他為「馬來之虎」。


縱使因馬來作戰成功,山下被奉為國民英雄,為戰史上裡唯一擊敗美、英、法、荷四大歐美強國、攻佔10國領地之戰將;但是昭和天皇沒有給機會讓山下拜
見,
原因被認為是二二六事件當時山下所採取的行動。


Battle of Singapore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Battle of Singapore
Part of Pacific War (World War II)


Lt Gen. Arthur Percival, led by a Japanese officer, walks under a
flag
of truce to negotiate the capitulation of Allied forces in Singapore,
on 15 February 1942. It was the largest surrender of British-led
forces in history.
Date January 31–February 15, 1942
Location Singapore, Straits Settlements
Result Decisive Japanese Victory, Japanese occupation of Singapore


Belligerents
Malaya Command:
III Corps
8th Division
18th Division
Malay Regiment
Straits Settlements Volunteer Force Twenty-Fifth Army
Imperial Guards
5th Division
18th Division
3rd Air Division
Imperial Navy
Commanders
Arthur Percival #
Gordon Bennett
Lewis Heath #
M. Beckwith-Smith # Tomoyuki Yamashita
Strength
85,000 36,000
Casualties and losses
2,000 killed
5,000 wounded
50,000 captured[1] 1,713 killed
2,772 wounded[2]


The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of
World War II when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold
of
Singapore. Singapore was the major British military base in South
East
Asia and nicknamed the "Gibraltar of the East". The fighting in
Singapore lasted from 7 February 1942 to 15 February 1942.


It resulted in the fall of Singapore to the Japanese, and the largest
surrender of British-led military personnel in history.[2] About
80,000 Indian, Australian and British troops became prisoners of war,
joining 50,000 taken by the Japanese in the Malayan campaign.
Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the ignominious
fall
of Singapore to the Japanese the "worst disaster" and "largest
capitulation" in British history.


Contents [hide]
1 Background
2 Invasion of Malaya
3 Preparations
4 Japanese landings
5 Air war
6 Second day
7 Japanese breakthrough
8 Alexandra Hospital massacre
9 Fall of Singapore
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Bibliography
11.2 Notes
12 External links


Battle of Malaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Battle of Malaya
Part of the Pacific Theatre of World War II


Japanese troops advancing through Kuala Lumpur.
Date 8 December 1941 – January 31, 1942
Location British Malaya
Result Japanese victory, Japanese occupation of Malaya, Emergence of
the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army


Belligerents
Malaya Command:
Indian III Corps
8th Division
Malay Regiment
53rd Infantry Brigade
Netherlands
New Zealand Twenty-Fifth Army:
Imperial Guards
5th Division
18th Division
3rd Air Division
Commanders
Arthur Percival Tomoyuki Yamashita
Strength
140,000
158 aircraft 70,000
568 aircraft
200 tanks
Casualties and losses
5,500 killed
5,000 wounded
40,000 PoW[1] 1,793 killed
3,378 wounded[2]


The Battle of Malaya was a campaign fought by Allied and Japanese
forces in Malaya, from December 8, 1941 to January 31, 1942 during
the
Second World War. The campaign was dominated by land battles between
British Commonwealth army units, and the Imperial Japanese Army. For
the British, Indian, Australian and Malayan forces defending the
colony, the campaign was a disaster.


The freewill to seek courage in La Marseillaise


The scene of Japanese butterflies (Lee and Leung) gang raping a girl
in public simply sicken me.


Those Frenchmen rushing to rescue were betrayed by English Canadian
in
British Canada; they were poisoned, shipped to Japan and mostly
likely
being massacred on street They might be forced to fight to their
death
alone without alliance and aid; but their soul will return home.


I am surprise on how Frenchmen can put up with the betrayal and
tyranny of English Canadian.


I will be happy to work with you and fight for you after Quebec
declare independence or is no longer a part of Canada.


May the soul of La Marseillaise and the spirit of Statue of Liberty
be
with you.


Sincerely


Yu Fung Liu
Making the right choice in your life.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marseillaise
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_Of_Liberty


La Marseillaise


---------------------------------------------------------------------------­-----


Allons enfants de la Patrie, Arise, children of the Fatherland,
Le jour de gloire est arrivé ! The day of glory has arrived!
Contre nous de la tyrannie, Against us tyranny's
L'étendard sanglant est levé, (bis) bloodied banner is raised,
(repeat)
Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Do you hear in the countryside
Mugir ces féroces soldats ? The roar of those ferocious soldiers?
Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras They come right here into your
midst
Égorger vos fils, vos compagnes ! To slit the throats of your sons
and
wives!


Aux armes, citoyens, To arms, citizens,
Formez vos bataillons, Form your battalions,
Marchons, marchons ! Let's march, let's march!
Qu'un sang impur May a tainted blood
Abreuve nos sillons ! Drench our furrows!


Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, What does this horde of slaves,
De traîtres, de rois conjurés ? Of traitors and conspiring kings
want?
Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, For whom [are] these vile chains,
Ces fers dès longtemps préparés ? (bis) These long-prepared irons?
(repeat)
Français, pour nous, ah ! quel outrage Frenchmen, for us, ah! What an
insult
Quels transports il doit exciter ! What fury it must arouse!
C'est nous qu'on ose méditer It is we whom they dare plan
De rendre à l'antique esclavage ! To return to the old slavery!


Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...


Quoi ! des cohortes étrangères What! Foreign cohorts!
Feraient la loi dans nos foyers ! Would rule our homes!
Quoi ! ces phalanges mercenaires What! These mercenary phalanxes
Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers ! (bis) Would cut down our proud
warriors! (repeat)
Grand Dieu ! par des mains enchaînées Great God ! By chained hands
Nos fronts sous le joug se ploieraient Our heads would bow under the
yoke
De vils despotes deviendraient Vile despots would become
Les maîtres de nos destinées ! The masters of our destinies!


Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...


Tremblez, tyrans et vous perfides Tremble, tyrants and traitors
L'opprobre de tous les partis, The shame of all good men,
Tremblez ! vos projets parricides Tremble! Your parricidal schemes
Vont enfin recevoir leurs prix ! (bis) Will finally receive their
just
reward! (repeat)
Tout est soldat pour vous combattre, Against you, we are all
soldiers,
S'ils tombent, nos jeunes héros, If our young heroes fall,
La terre en produit de nouveaux, The earth will bear new ones,
Contre vous tout prêts à se battre ! Ready to join the fight against
you!


Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...


Français, en guerriers magnanimes, Frenchmen, as magnanimous
warriors,
Portez ou retenez vos coups ! Bear or hold back your blows!
Épargnez ces tristes victimes, Spare these sorry victims,
À regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Armed against us against their
will. (repeat)
Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, But not these blood-thirsty despots,
Mais ces complices de Bouillé, These accomplices of Bouillé,
Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitié, All these tigers who mercilessly
Déchirent le sein de leur mère ! Slash their mother's breast!


Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...


Amour sacré de la Patrie, Sacred patriotic love,
Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs Lead and support our avenging
arms
Liberté, Liberté chérie, Liberty, cherished liberty,
Combats avec tes défenseurs ! (bis) Fight back with your defenders!
(repeat)
Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Under our flags, let victory
Accoure à tes mâles accents, Hurry to your manly tone,
Que tes ennemis expirants So that your dying enemies,
Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire ! See your triumph and our glory!


Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...


(Couplet des enfants) (Children's Verse)
Nous entrerons dans la carrière[3] We shall enter the (military)
career
Quand nos aînés n'y seront plus, When our elders are no longer there,
Nous y trouverons leur poussière There we shall find their dust
Et la trace de leurs vertus (bis) And the mark of their virtues
(repeat)
Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Much less jealous to survive them
Que de partager leur cercueil, Than to share their coffins,
Nous aurons le sublime orgueil We shall have the sublime pride
De les venger ou de les suivre Of avenging or following them


Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...


The Star-Spangled Banner


O! say can you see by the dawn's early light
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there.
O! say does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?


On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines in the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner! Oh long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.


And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion,
A home and a country should leave us no more!
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.


O! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved home and the war's desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: 'In God is our trust.'
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave![10]


The Statue of Liberty (French: Statue de la Liberté), officially
titled Liberty Enlightening the World (French: La liberté éclairant
le
monde), is a monument that was presented by the people of France to
the United States of America in 1886 to celebrate its centennial.
Standing on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, it welcomes visitors,
immigrants, and returning Americans traveling by ship.[5] The copper-
clad statue, dedicated on October 28, 1886, commemorates the
centennial of the signing of the United States Declaration of
Independence and was given to the United States by France to
represent
the friendship between the two countries established during the
American Revolution.[6] Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi sculpted the
statue
[7] and obtained a U.S. patent for its structure.[8] Maurice Koechlin

chief engineer of Gustave Eiffel's engineering company and designer
of
the Eiffel Tower—engineered the internal structure. Eugène Viollet-
le-
Duc was responsible for the choice of copper in the statue's
construction and adoption of the repoussé technique, where a
malleable
metal is hammered on the reverse side.[9]


Statue of Liberty
The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor
Location: Liberty Island, New York City, New York, U.S.[1]
Coordinates: 40°41′38″N 74°2′37″W / 40.69389°N 74.04361°W /
40.69389; -74.04361
Area: 12 acres (49,000 m2)[2]
Built: October 28, 1886
Architect: Frederic Auguste Bartholdi
Visitation: 4,235,595 (includes Ellis Island NM) (2005)
Governing body: U.S. National Park Service
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type: Cultural
Criteria: i, vi
Designated: 1984 (8th session)
Reference #: 307
Region: Europe and North America
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
Official name: Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and
Liberty Island
Designated: October 15, 1966[3]
Reference #: 66000058
U.S. National Monument
Designated: October 15, 1924
Designated by President: Calvin Coolidge[4]
New York City Landmark
Type: Individual
Designated: September 14, 1976
mrliu918
2009-07-06 10:17:23 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

The most shameful and largest surrender of British-led military
personnel in history in the Battle of Singapore and Battle of Malaya

The number of surrender was between four hundred thousand (400,000)
and
eight hundred thousand (800,000) on wikipedia ten years ago.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Singapore
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Malaya

[編輯] 馬來之虎 - 山下奉文
太平洋戰爭初期,1941年7月17日就任関東防衛軍司令官,11月6日轉任第25軍司令官,12月8日指揮馬來作戰,率領三萬五千兵力,1942年
2 月15日兩週內迅速攻陷新加坡,俘虜十三萬名英國、印度與澳洲聯軍將士,是為英軍有史以來最大一次投降,故此日本傳媒稱他為「馬來之虎」。

縱使因馬來作戰成功,山下被奉為國民英雄,為戰史上裡唯一擊敗美、英、法、荷四大歐美強國、攻佔10國領地之戰將;但是昭和天皇沒有給機會讓山下拜
見, 原因被認為是二二六事件當時山下所採取的行動。

巨杉
故郷大豊町有一棵“日本第一大杉”,山下称该杉树为“巨杉”。战后该大杉位处的八坂神社的宫司建立了供奉山下的“巨杉神社”,曾荒废过一段时间,现在改
称为“巨杉之杜”并存在至今。这棵杉树亦与美空云雀有缘。

Battle of Singapore
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Battle of Singapore
Part of Pacific War (World War II)

Lt Gen. Arthur Percival, led by a Japanese officer, walks under a
flag
of truce to negotiate the capitulation of Allied forces in Singapore,
on 15 February 1942. It was the largest surrender of British-led
forces in history.
Date January 31–February 15, 1942
Location Singapore, Straits Settlements
Result Decisive Japanese Victory, Japanese occupation of Singapore

Belligerents
Malaya Command:
III Corps
8th Division
18th Division
Malay Regiment
Straits Settlements Volunteer Force Twenty-Fifth Army
Imperial Guards
5th Division
18th Division
3rd Air Division
Imperial Navy
Commanders
Arthur Percival #
Gordon Bennett
Lewis Heath #
M. Beckwith-Smith # Tomoyuki Yamashita
Strength
85,000 36,000
Casualties and losses
2,000 killed
5,000 wounded
50,000 captured[1] 1,713 killed
2,772 wounded[2]

The Battle of Singapore was fought in the South-East Asian theatre of
World War II when the Empire of Japan invaded the Allied stronghold
of
Singapore. Singapore was the major British military base in South
East
Asia and nicknamed the "Gibraltar of the East". The fighting in
Singapore lasted from 7 February 1942 to 15 February 1942.

It resulted in the fall of Singapore to the Japanese, and the largest
surrender of British-led military personnel in history.[2] About
80,000 Indian, Australian and British troops became prisoners of war,
joining 50,000 taken by the Japanese in the Malayan campaign.
Britain's Prime Minister Winston Churchill called the ignominious
fall
of Singapore to the Japanese the "worst disaster" and "largest
capitulation" in British history.

Contents [hide]
1 Background
2 Invasion of Malaya
3 Preparations
4 Japanese landings
5 Air war
6 Second day
7 Japanese breakthrough
8 Alexandra Hospital massacre
9 Fall of Singapore
10 See also
11 References
11.1 Bibliography
11.2 Notes
12 External links

Battle of Malaya
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Battle of Malaya
Part of the Pacific Theatre of World War II

Japanese troops advancing through Kuala Lumpur.
Date 8 December 1941 – January 31, 1942
Location British Malaya
Result Japanese victory, Japanese occupation of Malaya, Emergence of
the Malayan Peoples' Anti-Japanese Army

Belligerents
Malaya Command:
Indian III Corps
8th Division
Malay Regiment
53rd Infantry Brigade
Netherlands
New Zealand Twenty-Fifth Army:
Imperial Guards
5th Division
18th Division
3rd Air Division
Commanders
Arthur Percival Tomoyuki Yamashita
Strength
140,000
158 aircraft 70,000
568 aircraft
200 tanks
Casualties and losses
5,500 killed
5,000 wounded
40,000 PoW[1] 1,793 killed
3,378 wounded[2]

The Battle of Malaya was a campaign fought by Allied and Japanese
forces in Malaya, from December 8, 1941 to January 31, 1942 during
the
Second World War. The campaign was dominated by land battles between
British Commonwealth army units, and the Imperial Japanese Army. For
the British, Indian, Australian and Malayan forces defending the
colony, the campaign was a disaster.

The freewill to seek courage in La Marseillaise

The scene of Japanese butterflies (Lee and Leung) gang raping a girl
in public simply sicken me.

Those Frenchmen rushing to rescue were betrayed by English Canadian
in
British Canada; they were poisoned, shipped to Japan and mostly
likely
being massacred on street They might be forced to fight to their
death
alone without alliance and aid; but their soul will return home.

I am surprise on how Frenchmen can put up with the betrayal and
tyranny of English Canadian.

I will be happy to work with you and fight for you after Quebec
declare independence or is no longer a part of Canada.

May the soul of La Marseillaise and the spirit of Statue of Liberty
be
with you.

Sincerely

Yu Fung Liu
Making the right choice in your life.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Marseillaise
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statue_Of_Liberty

La Marseillaise

---------------------------------------------------------------------------­­-----

Allons enfants de la Patrie, Arise, children of the Fatherland,
Le jour de gloire est arrivé ! The day of glory has arrived!
Contre nous de la tyrannie, Against us tyranny's
L'étendard sanglant est levé, (bis) bloodied banner is raised,
(repeat)
Entendez-vous dans les campagnes Do you hear in the countryside
Mugir ces féroces soldats ? The roar of those ferocious soldiers?
Ils viennent jusque dans vos bras They come right here into your
midst
Égorger vos fils, vos compagnes ! To slit the throats of your sons
and
wives!

Aux armes, citoyens, To arms, citizens,
Formez vos bataillons, Form your battalions,
Marchons, marchons ! Let's march, let's march!
Qu'un sang impur May a tainted blood
Abreuve nos sillons ! Drench our furrows!

Que veut cette horde d'esclaves, What does this horde of slaves,
De traîtres, de rois conjurés ? Of traitors and conspiring kings
want?
Pour qui ces ignobles entraves, For whom [are] these vile chains,
Ces fers dès longtemps préparés ? (bis) These long-prepared irons?
(repeat)
Français, pour nous, ah ! quel outrage Frenchmen, for us, ah! What an
insult
Quels transports il doit exciter ! What fury it must arouse!
C'est nous qu'on ose méditer It is we whom they dare plan
De rendre à l'antique esclavage ! To return to the old slavery!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Quoi ! des cohortes étrangères What! Foreign cohorts!
Feraient la loi dans nos foyers ! Would rule our homes!
Quoi ! ces phalanges mercenaires What! These mercenary phalanxes
Terrasseraient nos fiers guerriers ! (bis) Would cut down our proud
warriors! (repeat)
Grand Dieu ! par des mains enchaînées Great God ! By chained hands
Nos fronts sous le joug se ploieraient Our heads would bow under the
yoke
De vils despotes deviendraient Vile despots would become
Les maîtres de nos destinées ! The masters of our destinies!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Tremblez, tyrans et vous perfides Tremble, tyrants and traitors
L'opprobre de tous les partis, The shame of all good men,
Tremblez ! vos projets parricides Tremble! Your parricidal schemes
Vont enfin recevoir leurs prix ! (bis) Will finally receive their
just
reward! (repeat)
Tout est soldat pour vous combattre, Against you, we are all
soldiers,
S'ils tombent, nos jeunes héros, If our young heroes fall,
La terre en produit de nouveaux, The earth will bear new ones,
Contre vous tout prêts à se battre ! Ready to join the fight against
you!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Français, en guerriers magnanimes, Frenchmen, as magnanimous
warriors,
Portez ou retenez vos coups ! Bear or hold back your blows!
Épargnez ces tristes victimes, Spare these sorry victims,
À regret s'armant contre nous. (bis) Armed against us against their
will. (repeat)
Mais ces despotes sanguinaires, But not these blood-thirsty despots,
Mais ces complices de Bouillé, These accomplices of Bouillé,
Tous ces tigres qui, sans pitié, All these tigers who mercilessly
Déchirent le sein de leur mère ! Slash their mother's breast!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

Amour sacré de la Patrie, Sacred patriotic love,
Conduis, soutiens nos bras vengeurs Lead and support our avenging
arms
Liberté, Liberté chérie, Liberty, cherished liberty,
Combats avec tes défenseurs ! (bis) Fight back with your defenders!
(repeat)
Sous nos drapeaux que la victoire Under our flags, let victory
Accoure à tes mâles accents, Hurry to your manly tone,
Que tes ennemis expirants So that your dying enemies,
Voient ton triomphe et notre gloire ! See your triumph and our glory!

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

(Couplet des enfants) (Children's Verse)
Nous entrerons dans la carrière[3] We shall enter the (military)
career
Quand nos aînés n'y seront plus, When our elders are no longer there,
Nous y trouverons leur poussière There we shall find their dust
Et la trace de leurs vertus (bis) And the mark of their virtues
(repeat)
Bien moins jaloux de leur survivre Much less jealous to survive them
Que de partager leur cercueil, Than to share their coffins,
Nous aurons le sublime orgueil We shall have the sublime pride
De les venger ou de les suivre Of avenging or following them

Aux armes, citoyens... To arms, citizens...

The Star-Spangled Banner

O! say can you see by the dawn's early light
What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming?
Whose broad stripes and bright stars through the perilous fight,
O'er the ramparts we watched were so gallantly streaming?
And the rockets' red glare, the bombs bursting in air,
Gave proof through the night that our flag was still there.
O! say does that star-spangled banner yet wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave?

On the shore, dimly seen through the mists of the deep,
Where the foe's haughty host in dread silence reposes,
What is that which the breeze, o'er the towering steep,
As it fitfully blows, half conceals, half discloses?
Now it catches the gleam of the morning's first beam,
In full glory reflected now shines in the stream:
'Tis the star-spangled banner! Oh long may it wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

And where is that band who so vauntingly swore
That the havoc of war and the battle's confusion,
A home and a country should leave us no more!
Their blood has washed out their foul footsteps' pollution.
No refuge could save the hireling and slave
From the terror of flight, or the gloom of the grave:
And the star-spangled banner in triumph doth wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave.

O! thus be it ever, when freemen shall stand
Between their loved home and the war's desolation!
Blest with victory and peace, may the heav'n rescued land
Praise the Power that hath made and preserved us a nation.
Then conquer we must, when our cause it is just,
And this be our motto: 'In God is our trust.'
And the star-spangled banner in triumph shall wave
O'er the land of the free and the home of the brave![10]

The Statue of Liberty (French: Statue de la Liberté), officially
titled Liberty Enlightening the World (French: La liberté éclairant
le
monde), is a monument that was presented by the people of France to
the United States of America in 1886 to celebrate its centennial.
Standing on Liberty Island in New York Harbor, it welcomes visitors,
immigrants, and returning Americans traveling by ship.[5] The copper-
clad statue, dedicated on October 28, 1886, commemorates the
centennial of the signing of the United States Declaration of
Independence and was given to the United States by France to
represent
the friendship between the two countries established during the
American Revolution.[6] Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi sculpted the
statue
[7] and obtained a U.S. patent for its structure.[8] Maurice Koechlin

chief engineer of Gustave Eiffel's engineering company and designer
of
the Eiffel Tower—engineered the internal structure. Eugène Viollet-
le-
Duc was responsible for the choice of copper in the statue's
construction and adoption of the repoussé technique, where a
malleable
metal is hammered on the reverse side.[9]

Statue of Liberty
The Statue of Liberty in New York Harbor
Location: Liberty Island, New York City, New York, U.S.[1]
Coordinates: 40°41′38″N 74°2′37″W / 40.69389°N 74.04361°W /
40.69389; -74.04361
Area: 12 acres (49,000 m2)[2]
Built: October 28, 1886
Architect: Frederic Auguste Bartholdi
Visitation: 4,235,595 (includes Ellis Island NM) (2005)
Governing body: U.S. National Park Service
UNESCO World Heritage Site
Type: Cultural
Criteria: i, vi
Designated: 1984 (8th session)
Reference #: 307
Region: Europe and North America
U.S. National Register of Historic Places
Official name: Statue of Liberty National Monument, Ellis Island and
Liberty Island
Designated: October 15, 1966[3]
Reference #: 66000058
U.S. National Monument
Designated: October 15, 1924
Designated by President: Calvin Coolidge[4]
New York City Landmark
Type: Individual
Designated: September 14, 1976
mrliu918
2009-07-10 06:00:18 UTC
Permalink
New world order
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The term "new world order" has been used to refer to a new period of
history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and
the balance of power. The first usages of the term surrounded Woodrow
Wilson's Fourteen Points and call for a League of Nations following
the devastation of World War I. The phrase was used sparingly at the
end of the Second World War when describing the plans for the United
Nations and Bretton Woods system, in part because of the negative
association to the failed League of Nations the phrase would bring. In
retrospect however, many commentators have applied the term
retroactively to the order put in place by the WWII victors as a "new
world order."
The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times
came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and
George H.W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the post
Cold War era, and the spirit of great power cooperation that they
hoped might materialize. Gorbachev's initial formulation was wide
ranging and idealistic, but his ability to press for it was severely
limited by the internal crisis of the Soviet system. Bush's vision
was, in comparison, much more circumscribed and pragmatic, perhaps
even instrumental at times, and closely linked to the Gulf War.
Perhaps not surprisingly, the perception of what the new world order
entailed in the press and in the public imagination far outstripped
what either Gorbachev or Bush had outlined, and was characterized by
nearly comprehensive optimism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical usage
2 The post-Cold War "new world order"
2.1 Gorbachev's formulation
2.2 The Malta Conference
2.3 The Gulf War and Bush's formulation
2.3.1 A vision of unipolarity
2.3.2 The past is prologue
2.4 Following the Gulf War
2.5 Viewed in retrospect
3 Recent political usage
4 See also
5 References


[edit] Historical usage
Woodrow Wilson and the Origin of the League of Nations.
The phrase "new world order" was explicitly used in connection with
Woodrow Wilson's designs in the period just after World War I, during
the formation of the League of Nations. The "war to end all wars" had
been a powerful catalyst in international politics, and many felt the
world could simply no longer operate as it once had. The first world
war had been justified not only in terms of U.S. national interest but
in moral terms—to "make the world safe for democracy." After the war,
Wilson argued for a new world order which transcended traditional
great power politics, instead emphasizing collective security,
democracy, and self-determination. However, the United States Senate
rejected membership of the League of Nations, which Wilson believed to
be the key to a new world order. Senator Henry Cabot Lodge argued that
American policy should be based on human nature "as it is, not as it
ought to be."[1]

Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill during the meeting that
would result in the Atlantic Charter, precursor to the Bretton Woods
system.
The term fell from use when it became clear the League was not living
up to the over-optimistic expectation, and as a consequence was used
very little during the formation of the United Nations. Former UN
Secretary General Kurt Waldheim felt that this new world order was a
projection of the American dream into Europe, and that, in its
naïveté, the idea of a new order had been used to further the
parochial interests of Lloyd George and Clemenceau, thus ensuring the
League's eventual failure.[2] Although some have claimed the phrase
was not used at all, Virginia Gildersleeve, the sole female delegate
to the San Francisco Conference in April 1945, did use it in an
interview with the New York Times.[citation needed]
The phrase was used by some in retrospect when assessing the creation
of the post-World War II set of international institutions: the United
Nations; the U.S. security alliances such as NATO; the Bretton Woods
system of the International Monetary Fund and the International Bank
for Reconstruction and Development; and even the Truman Doctrine and
Marshall Plan were seen as characterizing or comprising this new order.
[citation needed]
H.G. Wells wrote a book published in 1940 entitled The New World
Order. The book addressed the ideal of a world without war in which
law and order emanated from a world governing body and examined
various proposals and ideas.
[edit] The post-Cold War "new world order"
The phrase "new world order", as used to herald in the post-Cold War
era, did not have a developed or substantive definition. There appear
to be three distinct periods in which it was progressively redefined,
first by the Soviets, and later by the United States before the Malta
Conference, and again after Bush's speech of 11 September 1990.
Throughout the period of the phrase’s use, the public seemed to expect
much more from the phrase than any politicians did, and predictions
about the new order quickly outraced the rather lukewarm descriptions
made in official speeches.
At first, the new world order dealt almost exclusively with nuclear
disarmament and security arrangements. Gorbachev would then expand the
phrase to include UN strengthening, and great power cooperation on a
range of North-South, economic, and security problems. Implications
for NATO, the Warsaw Pact, and European integration were subsequently
included.
The Malta Conference collected these various expectations, and they
were fleshed out in more detail by the press. German reunification,
human rights, and the polarity of the international system were then
included.
The Gulf War crisis refocused the term on superpower cooperation and
regional crises. Economics, North-South problems, the integration of
the Soviets into the international system, and the changes in economic
and military polarity received greater attention.
[edit] Gorbachev's formulation
The first press reference to the phrase came from Russo-Indian talks,
21 November 1988. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi used the term in
reference to the commitments made by the USSR through the Delhi
Declaration of two years previous. The new world order which he
describes is characterized by "non-violence and the principles of
peaceful coexistence." He also includes the possibility of a sustained
peace, an alternative to the nuclear balance of terror, dismantling of
nuclear weapons systems, significant cuts in strategic arms, and
eventually a general and complete disarmament.[3]
Three days later, a Guardian article quotes NATO Secretary General
Manfred Wörner as saying that the Soviets have come close to accepting
NATO’s doctrine of military stability based on a mix of nuclear as
well as conventional arms. This, in his opinion, would spur the
creation of "a new security framework" and a move towards "a new world
order."[4]
But the principal statement creating the new world order concept came
from Mikhail Gorbachev’s 7 December 1988 speech to the United Nations
General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive list of ideas
in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the central role
of the United Nations, and the active involvement of all members—the
Cold War had prevented the UN and its Security Council from performing
their roles as initially envisioned. The de-ideologizing of relations
among states was the mechanism through which this new level of
cooperation could be achieved. Concurrently, Gorbachev recognized only
one world economy—essentially an end to economic blocs. Furthermore,
he advocated Soviet entry into several important international
organizations, such as the CSCE and International Court of Justice.
Reinvigoration of the UN peacekeeping role, and recognition that
superpower cooperation can and will lead to the resolution of regional
conflicts was especially key in his conception of cooperation. He
argued that the use of force or the threat of the use of force was no
longer legitimate, and that the strong must demonstrate restraint
toward the weak. He foresaw, as the major powers of the world, the
United States, the Soviet Union, Europe, India, China, Japan, and
Brazil. He asked for cooperation on environmental protection, on debt
relief for developing countries, on disarmament of nuclear weapons, on
preservation of the ABM treaty, and on a convention for the
elimination of chemical weapons. At the same time he promised the
significant withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe and Asia,
as well as an end to the jamming of Radio Liberty.
Gorbachev described a phenomenon that could be described as a global
political awakening:
“ We are witnessing most profound social change. Whether in the East
or the South, the West or the North, hundreds of millions of people,
new nations and states, new public movements and ideologies have moved
to the forefront of history. Broad-based and frequently turbulent
popular movements have given expression, in a multidimensional and
contradictory way, to a longing for independence, democracy and social
justice. The idea of democratizing the entire world order has become a
powerful socio-political force. At the same time, the scientific and
technological revolution has turned many economic, food, energy,
environmental, information and population problems, which only
recently we treated as national or regional ones, into global
problems. Thanks to the advances in mass media and means of
transportation, the world seems to have become more visible and
tangible. International communication has become easier than ever
before. ”

In the press, Gorbachev was compared to Woodrow Wilson giving the
Fourteen Points, to FDR and Churchill promulgating the Atlantic
Charter, and to Marshall and Truman building the Western Alliance. His
speech, while visionary, was to be approached with caution. He was
seen as attempting a fundamental redefinition of international
relationships, on economic and environmental levels. His support "for
independence, democracy and social justice" was highlighted. But the
principle message taken from his speech was that of a new world order
based on pluralism, tolerance, and cooperation.[5]
“ For a new type of progress throughout the world to become a reality,
everyone must change. Tolerance is the alpha and omega of a new world
order. — Gorbachev, June 1990 ”

A month later, Time Magazine ran a longer analysis of the speech and
its possible implications. The promises of a new world order based on
the forswearing of military use of force was viewed partially as a
threat, which might "lure the West toward complacency" and "woo
Western Europe into neutered neutralism." The more overriding threat,
however, was that the West did not yet have any imaginative response
to Gorbachev—leaving the Soviets with the moral initiative, and
solidifying Gorbachev’s place as "the most popular world leader in
much of Western Europe." The article noted as important his de-
ideologized stance, willingness to give up use of force, commitment to
troop cuts in Eastern Europe (accelerating political change there),
and compliance with the ABM treaty. According to the article, the new
world order seemed to imply: shifting of resources from military to
domestic needs; a world community of states based on the rule of law;
a dwindling of security alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact; and,
an inevitable move toward European integration. The author of the Time
article felt that Bush should counter Gorbachev’s "common home"
rhetoric toward the Europeans with the idea of "common ideals,"
turning an alliance of necessity into one of shared values.
Gorbachev’s repudiation of expansionism leaves America in a good
position, no longer having to support anti-communist dictators, and
able to pursue better goals: the environment, nonproliferation of
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, reducing famine and
poverty, and resolving regional conflicts.[6] Similarly, in A World
Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft’s concern about losing leadership to
Gorbachev is noted, and they worry that the Europeans might stop
following the U.S. if it appears to drag its feet.[7]
As Europe passed into the new year, the implications of the new world
order for the European Community surfaced. The EC was seen as the
vehicle for integrating East and West in such a manner that they could
"pool their resources and defend their specific interests in dealings
with those superpowers on something more like equal terms." It would
be less exclusively tied to the U.S., and stretch "from Brest to Brest-
Litovsk, or at least from Dublin to Lublin."[8] By July 1989,
newspapers were still criticizing Bush for his lack of response to
Gorbachev’s proposals. Bush visited Europe but "left undefined for
those on both sides of the Iron Curtain his vision for the new world
order", leading commentators to view the U.S. as overly cautious and
reactive, rather than pursuing long-range strategic goals.[9]
[edit] The Malta Conference

George H. W. Bush.
In A World Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft craft a strategy of
flooding Gorbachev with proposals at the Malta Conference to catch him
off guard, preventing the U.S. from coming out of the summit on the
defensive.[10]
The Malta Conference of 2-3 December 1989 reinvigorated discussion of
the new world order. Various new concepts arose in the press as
elements on the new order. Commentators expected the replacement of
containment with superpower cooperation. This cooperation might then
tackle problems such as reducing armaments and troop deployments,
settling regional disputes, stimulating economic growth, lessening
East-West trade restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in
international economic institutions, and protecting the environment.
Pursuant to superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast,
with the organization perhaps changing into a forum for negotiation
and treaty verification, or even a wholesale dissolution of NATO and
the Warsaw Pact following the resurrection of the four-power framework
from WWII (i.e. the U.S., United Kingdom, France, and Russia).
However, continued U.S. military presence in Europe was expected to
help contain "historic antagonisms", thus making possible a new
European order.[11]

TIME Magazine cover, 11 December 1989.
In Europe, German reunification was seen as part of the new order.
However, Strobe Talbott saw it as more of a brake on the new era, and
believed Malta to be a holding action on part of the superpowers
designed to forestall the "new world order" because of the German
question[12]. Political change in Eastern Europe also arose on the
agenda. The Eastern Europeans believed that the new world order didn’t
signify superpower leadership, but that superpower dominance was
coming to an end[13].
In general, the new security structure arising from superpower
cooperation seemed to indicate to observers that the new world order
would be based on the principles of political liberty, self-
determination, and non-intervention. This would mean an end to the
sponsoring of military conflicts in third countries, restrictions on
global arms sales, and greater engagement in the Middle East
(especially regarding Syria, Palestine, and Israel). The U.S. might
use this opportunity to more emphatically promote human rights in
China and South Africa.[11]
Economically, debt relief was expected to be a significant issue, as
East-West competition would give way to North-South cooperation.
Economic tripolarity would arise with the U.S., Germany, and Japan as
the three motors of world growth. Meanwhile, the Soviet social and
economic crisis was manifestly going to limit its ability to project
power abroad, thus necessitating continued U.S. leadership.[11]
Commentators assessing the results of the Conference, and how the
pronouncements measured up to expectations, were underwhelmed. Bush
was criticized for taking refuge behind notions of "status quo-plus"
rather than a full commitment to new world order. Others noted that
Bush thus far failed to satisfy the out-of-control "soaring
expectations" that Gorbachev’s speech unleashed.[11]
[edit] The Gulf War and Bush's formulation

Bush greeting troops on the eve of the First Gulf War.
Bush started to take the initiative from Gorbachev during the run-up
to the Gulf War, when he began to define the elements of the new world
order as he saw it, and link the new order’s success to the
international community’s response in Kuwait.
Initial agreement by the Soviets to allow action against Saddam
highlighted this linkage in the press. The Washington Post declared
that this superpower cooperation demonstrates that the Soviet Union
has joined the international community, and that in the new world
order Saddam faces not just the U.S. but the international community
itself.[14] A New York Times editorial was the first to assert that at
stake in the collective response to Saddam was "nothing less than the
new world order which [Bush] and other leaders struggle to
shape." [15]
In A World Transformed, Scowcroft notes that Bush even offered to have
Soviet troops amongst the coalition forces liberating Kuwait. Bush
places the fate of the new world order on the ability of the U.S. and
the Soviet Union to respond to Hussein’s aggression.[16] The idea that
the Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take shape.
Bush notes that the "premise [was] that the United States henceforth
would be obligated to lead the world community to an unprecedented
degree, as demonstrated by the Iraqi crisis, and that we should
attempt to pursue our national interests, wherever possible, within a
framework of concert with our friends and the international
community."[17]
A pivotal point came with Bush’s 11 September 1990 "Toward a New World
Order" speech (full text)to a joint session of Congress. This time it
was Bush, not Gorbachev, whose idealism was compared to Woodrow
Wilson, and to FDR at the creation of the UN. Key points picked up in
the press were:
Commitment to U.S. strength, such that it can lead the world toward
rule of law, rather than use of force. The Gulf crisis was seen as a
reminder that the U.S. must continue to lead, and that military
strength does matter, but that the resulting new world order should
make military force less important in the future.
Soviet-American partnership in cooperation toward making the world
safe for democracy, making possible the goals of the UN for the first
time since its inception. Some countered that this was unlikely, and
that ideological tensions would remain, such that the two superpowers
could be partners of convenience for specific and limited goals only.
The inability of the USSR to project force abroad was another factor
in skepticism toward such a partnership.
Another caveat raised was that the new world order was based not on
U.S.-Soviet cooperation, but really on Bush-Gorbachev cooperation, and
that the personal diplomacy made the entire concept exceedingly
fragile.
Future cleavages were to be economic, not ideological, with the First
and Second world cooperating to contain regional instability in the
Third World. Russia could become an ally against economic assaults
from Asia, Islamic terrorism, and drugs from Latin America.
Soviet integration into world economic institutions, such as the G7,
and establishment of ties with the European Community.
Restoration of German sovereignty and Cambodia’s acceptance of the UN
Security Council’s peace plan on the day previous to the speech were
seen as signs of what to expect in the new world order
The reemergence of Germany and Japan as members of the great powers,
and concomitant reform of the UN Security Council was seen as
necessary for great power cooperation and reinvigorated UN leadership
Europe was seen as taking the lead on building their own world order,
while the U.S. was relegated to the sidelines. The rationale for U.S.
presence on the continent was vanishing, and the Gulf crisis was seen
as incapable of rallying Europe. Instead Europe was discussing the
European Community, the CSCE, and relations with the USSR. Gorbachev
even proposed an all-European security council to replace the CSCE, in
effect superseding the increasingly irrelevant NATO.
A very few postulated a bi-polar new order of U.S. power and UN moral
authority, the first as global policeman, the second as global judge
and jury. The order would be collectivist, in which decisions and
responsibility would be shared.
These were the common themes that emerged from reporting about Bush’s
speech and its implications.[18] Critics held that Bush and Baker
remained too vague about what exactly the order entailed.
“ Does it mean a strengthened U.N.? And new regional security
arrangements in the gulf and elsewhere? Will the U.S. be willing to
put its own military under international leadership? In the gulf, Mr.
Bush has rejected a U.N. command outright. Sometimes, when
Administration officials describe their goals, they say the U.S. must
reduce its military burden and commitment. Other times, they appear
determined to seek new arrangements in order to preserve U.S. military
supremacy and to justify new expenditures. ”

The New York Times observed that the American left was calling the new
world order a "rationalization for imperial ambitions" in the Middle
East, while the right rejected new security arrangements altogether
and fulminated about any possibility of UN revival.[19] Pat Buchanan
predicted that the Gulf War would in fact be the demise of the new
world order, the concept of UN peacekeeping, and the U.S.'s role as
global policeman.[20]
[edit] A vision of unipolarity
The LA Times reported that the speech signified more than just the
rhetoric about superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of
the new world order was the United States’ emergence "as the single
greatest power in a multipolar world." Moscow was crippled by internal
problems, and thus unable to project power abroad. The United States,
while hampered by economic malaise, was militarily unconstrained for
the first time since the end of WWII. Militarily, it was now a
unipolar world, as illustrated by the Gulf crisis. While diplomatic
rhetoric stressed a U.S.-Soviet partnership, the U.S. was deploying
troops to Saudi Arabia, a mere 700 miles from the Soviet frontier, and
was preparing for war against a former Soviet client state. Further,
U.S. authority over the Soviets was displayed in 1) the unification of
Germany, withdrawal of Soviet forces, and almost open appeal to
Washington for aid in managing the Soviet transition to democracy, 2)
withdrawal of Soviet support for Third World clients, and 3) Soviets
seeking economic aid through membership in Western international
economic and trade communities.[21]
[edit] The past is prologue

James Baker, Secretary of State under George H. W. Bush.
The Economist published an article explaining the drive toward the
Gulf War in terms presaging the run-up to the Iraq War of 2003. The
author notes directly that despite the coalition, in the minds of most
governments this is America's war, and Bush that "chose to stake his
political life on defeating Mr Hussein." An attack on Iraq would
certainly shatter Bush’s alliance, they assert, predicting calls from
Security Council members saying that diplomacy should have been given
more time, and that they will not wish to allow a course of action
"that leaves America sitting too prettily as sole remaining
superpower." When the unanimity of the Security Council ends, "all
that lovely talk about the new world order" will too. And when
casualties mount, "Bush will be called a warmonger, an imperialist and
a bully." The article goes on to say that Bush and James Baker’s
speechifying cannot save the new world order once they launch a
controversial war. It closes noting that a wide consensus is not
necessary for U.S. action—only a hard core of supporters: Saudi
Arabia, Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Egypt, and Britain. The rest
need only not interfere.[22]
In a passage with similar echoes of the future, Bush and Scowcroft
explain in A World Transformed the role of the UN Secretary General in
attempting to avert the Gulf War. UN Secretary General Javier Pérez de
Cuéllar arrived at Camp David to ask what he could do to head off the
war. Bush told him that it was important that we get full
implementation on every UN resolution. "If we compromise, we weaken
the UN and our own credibility in building this new world order," I
said. "I think Saddam Hussein doesn’t believe force will be used—or if
it is, he can produce a stalemate." Additional meetings between Baker
or Pérez and the Iraqis are rejected for fear that they will simply
come back empty-handed once again. Bush fears that Javier will be
cover for Hussein’s manipulations. Pérez suggests another Security
Council meeting, but Bush sees no reason for one.[23]
[edit] Following the Gulf War
Following the Gulf conflict—which was seen as the crucible in which
great power cooperation and collective security would emerge the new
norms of the era—several academic assessments of the "new world order"
idea were published.
John Lewis Gaddis, a Cold War historian, wrote in Foreign Affairs
about what he saw as the key characteristics of the potential new
order: unchallenged American primacy, increasing integration,
resurgent nationalism and religiosity, a diffusion of security
threats, and collective security. He casts the fundamental challenge
as one of integration versus fragmentation, and the concomitant
benefits and dangers associated with each. Changes in communications,
the international economic system, the nature of security threats, and
the rapid spread of new ideas would prevent nations from retreating
into isolation. In light of this, Gaddis sees a chance for the
democratic peace predicted by liberal international relations
theorists to come closer to reality. However, he illustrates that not
only is the fragmentary pressure of nationalism manifest in the former
Communist bloc countries and the Third World, but is also a
considerable factor in the West. Further, a revitalized Islam could
play both integrating and fragmenting roles—emphasizing common
identity, but also contributing to new conflicts that could resemble
the Lebanese Civil War. The integration coming from the new order
could also aggravate ecological, demographic, and epidemic threats.
National self-determination, leading to the breakup and reunification
of states (such as Yugoslavia on one hand, and Germany on the other)
could signal abrupt shifts in the balance of power, with a
destabilizing effect. Integrated markets, especially energy markets,
are now a security liability for the world economic system, as events
affecting energy security in one part of the globe could threaten
countries far removed from potential conflicts. Finally, diffusion of
security threats requires a new security paradigm involving low-
intensity but more frequent deployment of peacekeeping troops—a type
of mission that is hard to sustain under budgetary or public opinion
pressure. Gaddis calls for aid to Eastern European countries, updated
security and economic regimes for Europe, UN-based regional conflict
resolution, a slower pace of international economic integration, and
paying off the U.S. deficit.[24]
However, statesman Strobe Talbott wrote of the new world order that it
was only in the aftermath of the Gulf War that the United Nations took
a step toward redefining its role to take account of both interstate
relations and intrastate events. Furthermore, he asserted that it was
only as an unintended postscript to Desert Storm that Bush gave
meaning to the "new world order" slogan. But, by the end of the year
Bush stopped talking about a new world order. His advisers explained
that he had dropped the phrase because he felt it suggested more
enthusiasm for the changes sweeping the planet than he actually felt.
He wanted, as an antidote to the uncertainties of the world, to stress
the old verities of territorial integrity, national sovereignty and
international stability.[25] David Gergen suggested at the time that
it was the recession of 1991-92 which finally killed the new world
order idea within the White House. The economic downturn took a deeper
psychological toll than expected while domestic politics were
increasinly frustrated by paralysis, with the result that the United
States toward the end of 1991 turned increasingly pessimistic, inward
and nationalistic.[26]
In 1992, Hans Köchler published a critical assessment of the notion of
the "new world order," describing it as an ideological tool of
legitimation of the global exercise of power by the US in a unipolar
environment.[27] In Joseph S. Nye, Jr.'s analysis (1992), the collapse
of the Soviet Union did not issue in a new world order per se, but
rather simply allowed for the reappearance of the liberal
institutional order that was supposed to have come into effect in
1945. This success of this order was not a fait accomplis, however.
[28] Three years later, G. John Ikenberry would reaffirm Nye's idea of
a reclamation of the ideal post-WWII order, but would dispute the nay-
sayers who had predicted post-Cold War chaos.[29] By 1997, Anne-Marie
Slaughter produced an analysis calling the restoration of the post-
WWII order a "chimera... infeasible at best and dangerous at worst."
In her view, the new order was not a liberal institutionalist one, but
one in which state authority disaggregated and decentralized in the
face of globalization.[30]
Samuel Huntington wrote critically of the "new world order" and of
Francis Fukuyama's End of History theory in The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order:
The expectation of harmony was widely shared. Political and
intellectual leaders elaborated similar views. The Berlin wall had
come down, communist regimes had collapsed, the United Nations was to
assume a new importance, the former Cold War rivals would engage in
"partnership" and a "grand bargain," peacekeeping and peacemaking
would be the order of the day. The President of the world's leading
country proclaimed the "new world order"...
The moment of euphoria at the end of the Cold War generated an
illusion of harmony, which was soon revealed to be exactly that. The
world became different in the early 1990s, but not necessarily more
peaceful. Change was inevitable; progress was not... The illusion of
harmony at the end of that Cold War was soon dissipated by the
multiplication of ethnic conflicts and "ethnic cleansing," the
breakdown of law and order, the emergence of new patterns of alliance
and conflict among states, the resurgence of neo-communist and neo-
fascist movements, intensification of religious fundamentalism, the
end of the "diplomacy of smiles" and "policy of yes" in Russia's
relations with the West, the inability of the United Nations and the
United States to suppress bloody local conflicts, and the increasing
assertiveness of a rising China. In the five years after the Berlin
wall came down, the word "genocide" was heard far more often than in
any five years of the Cold War.



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New world order and cold war politics - USA VS USSR

New world order
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia


The term "new world order" has been used to refer to a new period of
history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and
the balance of power. The first usages of the term surrounded Woodrow
Wilson's Fourteen Points and call for a League of Nations following
the devastation of World War I. The phrase was used sparingly at the
end of the Second World War when describing the plans for the United
Nations and Bretton Woods system, in part because of the negative
association to the failed League of Nations the phrase would bring. In
retrospect however, many commentators have applied the term
retroactively to the order put in place by the WWII victors as a "new
world order."
The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times
came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and
George H.W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the post
Cold War era, and the spirit of great power cooperation that they
hoped might materialize. Gorbachev's initial formulation was wide
ranging and idealistic, but his ability to press for it was severely
limited by the internal crisis of the Soviet system. Bush's vision
was, in comparison, much more circumscribed and pragmatic, perhaps
even instrumental at times, and closely linked to the Gulf War.
Perhaps not surprisingly, the perception of what the new world order
entailed in the press and in the public imagination far outstripped
what either Gorbachev or Bush had outlined, and was characterized by
nearly comprehensive optimism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical usage
2 The post-Cold War "new world order"
2.1 Gorbachev's formulation
2.2 The Malta Conference
2.3 The Gulf War and Bush's formulation
2.3.1 A vision of unipolarity
2.3.2 The past is prologue
2.4 Following the Gulf War
2.5 Viewed in retrospect
3 Recent political usage
4 See also
5 References


[edit] Historical usage


[edit] Gorbachev's formulation
The first press reference to the phrase came from Russo-Indian talks,
21 November 1988. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi used the term in
reference to the commitments made by the USSR through the Delhi
Declaration of two years previous. The new world order which he
describes is characterized by "non-violence and the principles of
peaceful coexistence." He also includes the possibility of a sustained
peace, an alternative to the nuclear balance of terror, dismantling of
nuclear weapons systems, significant cuts in strategic arms, and
eventually a general and complete disarmament.[3]
Three days later, a Guardian article quotes NATO Secretary General
Manfred Wörner as saying that the Soviets have come close to accepting
NATO’s doctrine of military stability based on a mix of nuclear as
well as conventional arms. This, in his opinion, would spur the
creation of "a new security framework" and a move towards "a new world
order."[4]
But the principal statement creating the new world order concept came
from Mikhail Gorbachev’s 7 December 1988 speech to the United Nations
General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive list of ideas
in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the central role
of the United Nations, and the active involvement of all members—the
Cold War had prevented the UN and its Security Council from performing
their roles as initially envisioned. The de-ideologizing of relations
among states was the mechanism through which this new level of
cooperation could be achieved. Concurrently, Gorbachev recognized only
one world economy—essentially an end to economic blocs. Furthermore,
he advocated Soviet entry into several important international
organizations, such as the CSCE and International Court of Justice.
Reinvigoration of the UN peacekeeping role, and recognition that
superpower cooperation can and will lead to the resolution of regional
conflicts was especially key in his conception of cooperation. He
argued that the use of force or the threat of the use of force was no
longer legitimate, and that the strong must demonstrate restraint
toward the weak. He foresaw, as the major powers of the world, the
United States, the Soviet Union, Europe, India, China, Japan, and
Brazil. He asked for cooperation on environmental protection, on debt
relief for developing countries, on disarmament of nuclear weapons, on
preservation of the ABM treaty, and on a convention for the
elimination of chemical weapons. At the same time he promised the
significant withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe and Asia,
as well as an end to the jamming of Radio Liberty.
Gorbachev described a phenomenon that could be described as a global
political awakening:
“ We are witnessing most profound social change. Whether in the East
or the South, the West or the North, hundreds of millions of people,
new nations and states, new public movements and ideologies have moved
to the forefront of history. Broad-based and frequently turbulent
popular movements have given expression, in a multidimensional and
contradictory way, to a longing for independence, democracy and social
justice. The idea of democratizing the entire world order has become a
powerful socio-political force. At the same time, the scientific and
technological revolution has turned many economic, food, energy,
environmental, information and population problems, which only
recently we treated as national or regional ones, into global
problems. Thanks to the advances in mass media and means of
transportation, the world seems to have become more visible and
tangible. International communication has become easier than ever
before. ”

In the press, Gorbachev was compared to Woodrow Wilson giving the
Fourteen Points, to FDR and Churchill promulgating the Atlantic
Charter, and to Marshall and Truman building the Western Alliance. His
speech, while visionary, was to be approached with caution. He was
seen as attempting a fundamental redefinition of international
relationships, on economic and environmental levels. His support "for
independence, democracy and social justice" was highlighted. But the
principle message taken from his speech was that of a new world order
based on pluralism, tolerance, and cooperation.[5]
“ For a new type of progress throughout the world to become a reality,
everyone must change. Tolerance is the alpha and omega of a new world
order. — Gorbachev, June 1990 ”

A month later, Time Magazine ran a longer analysis of the speech and
its possible implications. The promises of a new world order based on
the forswearing of military use of force was viewed partially as a
threat, which might "lure the West toward complacency" and "woo
Western Europe into neutered neutralism." The more overriding threat,
however, was that the West did not yet have any imaginative response
to Gorbachev—leaving the Soviets with the moral initiative, and
solidifying Gorbachev’s place as "the most popular world leader in
much of Western Europe." The article noted as important his de-
ideologized stance, willingness to give up use of force, commitment to
troop cuts in Eastern Europe (accelerating political change there),
and compliance with the ABM treaty. According to the article, the new
world order seemed to imply: shifting of resources from military to
domestic needs; a world community of states based on the rule of law;
a dwindling of security alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact; and,
an inevitable move toward European integration. The author of the Time
article felt that Bush should counter Gorbachev’s "common home"
rhetoric toward the Europeans with the idea of "common ideals,"
turning an alliance of necessity into one of shared values.
Gorbachev’s repudiation of expansionism leaves America in a good
position, no longer having to support anti-communist dictators, and
able to pursue better goals: the environment, nonproliferation of
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, reducing famine and
poverty, and resolving regional conflicts.[6] Similarly, in A World
Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft’s concern about losing leadership to
Gorbachev is noted, and they worry that the Europeans might stop
following the U.S. if it appears to drag its feet.[7]
As Europe passed into the new year, the implications of the new world
order for the European Community surfaced. The EC was seen as the
vehicle for integrating East and West in such a manner that they could
"pool their resources and defend their specific interests in dealings
with those superpowers on something more like equal terms." It would
be less exclusively tied to the U.S., and stretch "from Brest to Brest-
Litovsk, or at least from Dublin to Lublin."[8] By July 1989,
newspapers were still criticizing Bush for his lack of response to
Gorbachev’s proposals. Bush visited Europe but "left undefined for
those on both sides of the Iron Curtain his vision for the new world
order", leading commentators to view the U.S. as overly cautious and
reactive, rather than pursuing long-range strategic goals.[9]
[edit] The Malta Conference

George H. W. Bush.
In A World Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft craft a strategy of
flooding Gorbachev with proposals at the Malta Conference to catch him
off guard, preventing the U.S. from coming out of the summit on the
defensive.[10]
The Malta Conference of 2-3 December 1989 reinvigorated discussion of
the new world order. Various new concepts arose in the press as
elements on the new order. Commentators expected the replacement of
containment with superpower cooperation. This cooperation might then
tackle problems such as reducing armaments and troop deployments,
settling regional disputes, stimulating economic growth, lessening
East-West trade restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in
international economic institutions, and protecting the environment.
Pursuant to superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast,
with the organization perhaps changing into a forum for negotiation
and treaty verification, or even a wholesale dissolution of NATO and
the Warsaw Pact following the resurrection of the four-power framework
from WWII (i.e. the U.S., United Kingdom, France, and Russia).
However, continued U.S. military presence in Europe was expected to
help contain "historic antagonisms", thus making possible a new
European order.[11]

TIME Magazine cover, 11 December 1989.
In Europe, German reunification was seen as part of the new order.
However, Strobe Talbott saw it as more of a brake on the new era, and
believed Malta to be a holding action on part of the superpowers
designed to forestall the "new world order" because of the German
question[12]. Political change in Eastern Europe also arose on the
agenda. The Eastern Europeans believed that the new world order didn’t
signify superpower leadership, but that superpower dominance was
coming to an end[13].
In general, the new security structure arising from superpower
cooperation seemed to indicate to observers that the new world order
would be based on the principles of political liberty, self-
determination, and non-intervention. This would mean an end to the
sponsoring of military conflicts in third countries, restrictions on
global arms sales, and greater engagement in the Middle East
(especially regarding Syria, Palestine, and Israel). The U.S. might
use this opportunity to more emphatically promote human rights in
China and South Africa.[11]
Economically, debt relief was expected to be a significant issue, as
East-West competition would give way to North-South cooperation.
Economic tripolarity would arise with the U.S., Germany, and Japan as
the three motors of world growth. Meanwhile, the Soviet social and
economic crisis was manifestly going to limit its ability to project
power abroad, thus necessitating continued U.S. leadership.[11]
Commentators assessing the results of the Conference, and how the
pronouncements measured up to expectations, were underwhelmed. Bush
was criticized for taking refuge behind notions of "status quo-plus"
rather than a full commitment to new world order. Others noted that
Bush thus far failed to satisfy the out-of-control "soaring
expectations" that Gorbachev’s speech unleashed.[11]
[edit] The Gulf War and Bush's formulation

Bush greeting troops on the eve of the First Gulf War.
Bush started to take the initiative from Gorbachev during the run-up
to the Gulf War, when he began to define the elements of the new world
order as he saw it, and link the new order’s success to the
international community’s response in Kuwait.
Initial agreement by the Soviets to allow action against Saddam
highlighted this linkage in the press. The Washington Post declared
that this superpower cooperation demonstrates that the Soviet Union
has joined the international community, and that in the new world
order Saddam faces not just the U.S. but the international community
itself.[14] A New York Times editorial was the first to assert that at
stake in the collective response to Saddam was "nothing less than the
new world order which [Bush] and other leaders struggle to
shape." [15]
In A World Transformed, Scowcroft notes that Bush even offered to have
Soviet troops amongst the coalition forces liberating Kuwait. Bush
places the fate of the new world order on the ability of the U.S. and
the Soviet Union to respond to Hussein’s aggression.[16] The idea that
the Gulf War would usher in the new world order began to take shape.
Bush notes that the "premise [was] that the United States henceforth
would be obligated to lead the world community to an unprecedented
degree, as demonstrated by the Iraqi crisis, and that we should
attempt to pursue our national interests, wherever possible, within a
framework of concert with our friends and the international
community."[17]
A pivotal point came with Bush’s 11 September 1990 "Toward a New World
Order" speech (full text)to a joint session of Congress. This time it
was Bush, not Gorbachev, whose idealism was compared to Woodrow
Wilson, and to FDR at the creation of the UN. Key points picked up in
the press were:
Commitment to U.S. strength, such that it can lead the world toward
rule of law, rather than use of force. The Gulf crisis was seen as a
reminder that the U.S. must continue to lead, and that military
strength does matter, but that the resulting new world order should
make military force less important in the future.
Soviet-American partnership in cooperation toward making the world
safe for democracy, making possible the goals of the UN for the first
time since its inception. Some countered that this was unlikely, and
that ideological tensions would remain, such that the two superpowers
could be partners of convenience for specific and limited goals only.
The inability of the USSR to project force abroad was another factor
in skepticism toward such a partnership.
Another caveat raised was that the new world order was based not on
U.S.-Soviet cooperation, but really on Bush-Gorbachev cooperation, and
that the personal diplomacy made the entire concept exceedingly
fragile.
Future cleavages were to be economic, not ideological, with the First
and Second world cooperating to contain regional instability in the
Third World. Russia could become an ally against economic assaults
from Asia, Islamic terrorism, and drugs from Latin America.
Soviet integration into world economic institutions, such as the G7,
and establishment of ties with the European Community.
Restoration of German sovereignty and Cambodia’s acceptance of the UN
Security Council’s peace plan on the day previous to the speech were
seen as signs of what to expect in the new world order
The reemergence of Germany and Japan as members of the great powers,
and concomitant reform of the UN Security Council was seen as
necessary for great power cooperation and reinvigorated UN leadership
Europe was seen as taking the lead on building their own world order,
while the U.S. was relegated to the sidelines. The rationale for U.S.
presence on the continent was vanishing, and the Gulf crisis was seen
as incapable of rallying Europe. Instead Europe was discussing the
European Community, the CSCE, and relations with the USSR. Gorbachev
even proposed an all-European security council to replace the CSCE, in
effect superseding the increasingly irrelevant NATO.
A very few postulated a bi-polar new order of U.S. power and UN moral
authority, the first as global policeman, the second as global judge
and jury. The order would be collectivist, in which decisions and
responsibility would be shared.
These were the common themes that emerged from reporting about Bush’s
speech and its implications.[18] Critics held that Bush and Baker
remained too vague about what exactly the order entailed.
“ Does it mean a strengthened U.N.? And new regional security
arrangements in the gulf and elsewhere? Will the U.S. be willing to
put its own military under international leadership? In the gulf, Mr.
Bush has rejected a U.N. command outright. Sometimes, when
Administration officials describe their goals, they say the U.S. must
reduce its military burden and commitment. Other times, they appear
determined to seek new arrangements in order to preserve U.S. military
supremacy and to justify new expenditures. ”

The New York Times observed that the American left was calling the new
world order a "rationalization for imperial ambitions" in the Middle
East, while the right rejected new security arrangements altogether
and fulminated about any possibility of UN revival.[19] Pat Buchanan
predicted that the Gulf War would in fact be the demise of the new
world order, the concept of UN peacekeeping, and the U.S.'s role as
global policeman.[20]
[edit] A vision of unipolarity
The LA Times reported that the speech signified more than just the
rhetoric about superpower cooperation. In fact, the deeper reality of
the new world order was the United States’ emergence "as the single
greatest power in a multipolar world." Moscow was crippled by internal
problems, and thus unable to project power abroad. The United States,
while hampered by economic malaise, was militarily unconstrained for
the first time since the end of WWII. Militarily, it was now a
unipolar world, as illustrated by the Gulf crisis. While diplomatic
rhetoric stressed a U.S.-Soviet partnership, the U.S. was deploying
troops to Saudi Arabia, a mere 700 miles from the Soviet frontier, and
was preparing for war against a former Soviet client state. Further,
U.S. authority over the Soviets was displayed in 1) the unification of
Germany, withdrawal of Soviet forces, and almost open appeal to
Washington for aid in managing the Soviet transition to democracy, 2)
withdrawal of Soviet support for Third World clients, and 3) Soviets
seeking economic aid through membership in Western international
economic and trade communities.[21]
[edit] The past is prologue

James Baker, Secretary of State under George H. W. Bush.
The Economist published an article explaining the drive toward the
Gulf War in terms presaging the run-up to the Iraq War of 2003. The
author notes directly that despite the coalition, in the minds of most
governments this is America's war, and Bush that "chose to stake his
political life on defeating Mr Hussein." An attack on Iraq would
certainly shatter Bush’s alliance, they assert, predicting calls from
Security Council members saying that diplomacy should have been given
more time, and that they will not wish to allow a course of action
"that leaves America sitting too prettily as sole remaining
superpower." When the unanimity of the Security Council ends, "all
that lovely talk about the new world order" will too. And when
casualties mount, "Bush will be called a warmonger, an imperialist and
a bully." The article goes on to say that Bush and James Baker’s
speechifying cannot save the new world order once they launch a
controversial war. It closes noting that a wide consensus is not
necessary for U.S. action—only a hard core of supporters: Saudi
Arabia, Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Egypt, and Britain. The rest
need only not interfere.[22]
In a passage with similar echoes of the future, Bush and Scowcroft
explain in A World Transformed the role of the UN Secretary General in
attempting to avert the Gulf War. UN Secretary General Javier Pérez de
Cuéllar arrived at Camp David to ask what he could do to head off the
war. Bush told him that it was important that we get full
implementation on every UN resolution. "If we compromise, we weaken
the UN and our own credibility in building this new world order," I
said. "I think Saddam Hussein doesn’t believe force will be used—or if
it is, he can produce a stalemate." Additional meetings between Baker
or Pérez and the Iraqis are rejected for fear that they will simply
come back empty-handed once again. Bush fears that Javier will be
cover for Hussein’s manipulations. Pérez suggests another Security
Council meeting, but Bush sees no reason for one.[23]
[edit] Following the Gulf War
Following the Gulf conflict—which was seen as the crucible in which
great power cooperation and collective security would emerge the new
norms of the era—several academic assessments of the "new world order"
idea were published.
John Lewis Gaddis, a Cold War historian, wrote in Foreign Affairs
about what he saw as the key characteristics of the potential new
order: unchallenged American primacy, increasing integration,
resurgent nationalism and religiosity, a diffusion of security
threats, and collective security. He casts the fundamental challenge
as one of integration versus fragmentation, and the concomitant
benefits and dangers associated with each. Changes in communications,
the international economic system, the nature of security threats, and
the rapid spread of new ideas would prevent nations from retreating
into isolation. In light of this, Gaddis sees a chance for the
democratic peace predicted by liberal international relations
theorists to come closer to reality. However, he illustrates that not
only is the fragmentary pressure of nationalism manifest in the former
Communist bloc countries and the Third World, but is also a
considerable factor in the West. Further, a revitalized Islam could
play both integrating and fragmenting roles—emphasizing common
identity, but also contributing to new conflicts that could resemble
the Lebanese Civil War. The integration coming from the new order
could also aggravate ecological, demographic, and epidemic threats.
National self-determination, leading to the breakup and reunification
of states (such as Yugoslavia on one hand, and Germany on the other)
could signal abrupt shifts in the balance of power, with a
destabilizing effect. Integrated markets, especially energy markets,
are now a security liability for the world economic system, as events
affecting energy security in one part of the globe could threaten
countries far removed from potential conflicts. Finally, diffusion of
security threats requires a new security paradigm involving low-
intensity but more frequent deployment of peacekeeping troops—a type
of mission that is hard to sustain under budgetary or public opinion
pressure. Gaddis calls for aid to Eastern European countries, updated
security and economic regimes for Europe, UN-based regional conflict
resolution, a slower pace of international economic integration, and
paying off the U.S. deficit.[24]
However, statesman Strobe Talbott wrote of the new world order that it
was only in the aftermath of the Gulf War that the United Nations took
a step toward redefining its role to take account of both interstate
relations and intrastate events. Furthermore, he asserted that it was
only as an unintended postscript to Desert Storm that Bush gave
meaning to the "new world order" slogan. But, by the end of the year
Bush stopped talking about a new world order. His advisers explained
that he had dropped the phrase because he felt it suggested more
enthusiasm for the changes sweeping the planet than he actually felt.
He wanted, as an antidote to the uncertainties of the world, to stress
the old verities of territorial integrity, national sovereignty and
international stability.[25] David Gergen suggested at the time that
it was the recession of 1991-92 which finally killed the new world
order idea within the White House. The economic downturn took a deeper
psychological toll than expected while domestic politics were
increasinly frustrated by paralysis, with the result that the United
States toward the end of 1991 turned increasingly pessimistic, inward
and nationalistic.[26]
In 1992, Hans Köchler published a critical assessment of the notion of
the "new world order," describing it as an ideological tool of
legitimation of the global exercise of power by the US in a unipolar
environment.[27] In Joseph S. Nye, Jr.'s analysis (1992), the collapse
of the Soviet Union did not issue in a new world order per se, but
rather simply allowed for the reappearance of the liberal
institutional order that was supposed to have come into effect in
1945. This success of this order was not a fait accomplis, however.
[28] Three years later, G. John Ikenberry would reaffirm Nye's idea of
a reclamation of the ideal post-WWII order, but would dispute the nay-
sayers who had predicted post-Cold War chaos.[29] By 1997, Anne-Marie
Slaughter produced an analysis calling the restoration of the post-
WWII order a "chimera... infeasible at best and dangerous at worst."
In her view, the new order was not a liberal institutionalist one, but
one in which state authority disaggregated and decentralized in the
face of globalization.[30]
Samuel Huntington wrote critically of the "new world order" and of
Francis Fukuyama's End of History theory in The Clash of Civilizations
and the Remaking of World Order:
The expectation of harmony was widely shared. Political and
intellectual leaders elaborated similar views. The Berlin wall had
come down, communist regimes had collapsed, the United Nations was to
assume a new importance, the former Cold War rivals would engage in
"partnership" and a "grand bargain," peacekeeping and peacemaking
would be the order of the day. The President of the world's leading
country proclaimed the "new world order"...
The moment of euphoria at the end of the Cold War generated an
illusion of harmony, which was soon revealed to be exactly that. The
world became different in the early 1990s, but not necessarily more
peaceful. Change was inevitable; progress was not... The illusion of
harmony at the end of that Cold War was soon dissipated by the
multiplication of ethnic conflicts and "ethnic cleansing," the
breakdown of law and order, the emergence of new patterns of alliance
and conflict among states, the resurgence of neo-communist and neo-
fascist movements, intensification of religious fundamentalism, the
end of the "diplomacy of smiles" and "policy of yes" in Russia's
relations with the West, the inability of the United Nations and the
United States to suppress bloody local conflicts, and the increasing
assertiveness of a rising China. In the five years after the Berlin
wall came down, the word "genocide" was heard far more often than in
any five years of the Cold War.



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abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-07-10 06:47:29 UTC
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Blah, blah, blah! You are so boring. Let's have some fun! Call me at
www.thailovelinks.com .

Here are my websites:
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Post by mrliu918
New world order and cold war politics - USA VS USSR
New world order
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The term "new world order" has been used to refer to a new period of
history evidencing a dramatic change in world political thought and
the balance of power. The first usages of the term surrounded Woodrow
Wilson's Fourteen Points and call for a League of Nations following
the devastation of World War I. The phrase was used sparingly at the
end of the Second World War when describing the plans for the United
Nations and Bretton Woods system, in part because of the negative
association to the failed League of Nations the phrase would bring. In
retrospect however, many commentators have applied the term
retroactively to the order put in place by the WWII victors as a "new
world order."
The most widely discussed application of the phrase of recent times
came at the end of the Cold War. Presidents Mikhail Gorbachev and
George H.W. Bush used the term to try to define the nature of the post
Cold War era, and the spirit of great power cooperation that they
hoped might materialize. Gorbachev's initial formulation was wide
ranging and idealistic, but his ability to press for it was severely
limited by the internal crisis of the Soviet system. Bush's vision
was, in comparison, much more circumscribed and pragmatic, perhaps
even instrumental at times, and closely linked to the Gulf War.
Perhaps not surprisingly, the perception of what the new world order
entailed in the press and in the public imagination far outstripped
what either Gorbachev or Bush had outlined, and was characterized by
nearly comprehensive optimism.
Contents
[hide]
1 Historical usage
2 The post-Cold War "new world order"
2.1 Gorbachev's formulation
2.2 The Malta Conference
2.3 The Gulf War and Bush's formulation
2.3.1 A vision of unipolarity
2.3.2 The past is prologue
2.4 Following the Gulf War
2.5 Viewed in retrospect
3 Recent political usage
4 See also
5 References
[edit] Historical usage
[edit] Gorbachev's formulation
The first press reference to the phrase came from Russo-Indian talks,
21 November 1988. Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi used the term in
reference to the commitments made by the USSR through the Delhi
Declaration of two years previous. The new world order which he
describes is characterized by "non-violence and the principles of
peaceful coexistence." He also includes the possibility of a sustained
peace, an alternative to the nuclear balance of terror, dismantling of
nuclear weapons systems, significant cuts in strategic arms, and
eventually a general and complete disarmament.[3]
Three days later, a Guardian article quotes NATO Secretary General
Manfred Wörner as saying that the Soviets have come close to accepting
NATO’s doctrine of military stability based on a mix of nuclear as
well as conventional arms. This, in his opinion, would spur the
creation of "a new security framework" and a move towards "a new world
order."[4]
But the principal statement creating the new world order concept came
from Mikhail Gorbachev’s 7 December 1988 speech to the United Nations
General Assembly. His formulation included an extensive list of ideas
in creating a new order. He advocated strengthening the central role
of the United Nations, and the active involvement of all members—the
Cold War had prevented the UN and its Security Council from performing
their roles as initially envisioned. The de-ideologizing of relations
among states was the mechanism through which this new level of
cooperation could be achieved. Concurrently, Gorbachev recognized only
one world economy—essentially an end to economic blocs. Furthermore,
he advocated Soviet entry into several important international
organizations, such as the CSCE and International Court of Justice.
Reinvigoration of the UN peacekeeping role, and recognition that
superpower cooperation can and will lead to the resolution of regional
conflicts was especially key in his conception of cooperation. He
argued that the use of force or the threat of the use of force was no
longer legitimate, and that the strong must demonstrate restraint
toward the weak. He foresaw, as the major powers of the world, the
United States, the Soviet Union, Europe, India, China, Japan, and
Brazil. He asked for cooperation on environmental protection, on debt
relief for developing countries, on disarmament of nuclear weapons, on
preservation of the ABM treaty, and on a convention for the
elimination of chemical weapons. At the same time he promised the
significant withdrawal of Soviet forces from Eastern Europe and Asia,
as well as an end to the jamming of Radio Liberty.
Gorbachev described a phenomenon that could be described as a global
“ We are witnessing most profound social change. Whether in the East
or the South, the West or the North, hundreds of millions of people,
new nations and states, new public movements and ideologies have moved
to the forefront of history. Broad-based and frequently turbulent
popular movements have given expression, in a multidimensional and
contradictory way, to a longing for independence, democracy and social
justice. The idea of democratizing the entire world order has become a
powerful socio-political force. At the same time, the scientific and
technological revolution has turned many economic, food, energy,
environmental, information and population problems, which only
recently we treated as national or regional ones, into global
problems. Thanks to the advances in mass media and means of
transportation, the world seems to have become more visible and
tangible. International communication has become easier than ever
before. ”
In the press, Gorbachev was compared to Woodrow Wilson giving the
Fourteen Points, to FDR and Churchill promulgating the Atlantic
Charter, and to Marshall and Truman building the Western Alliance. His
speech, while visionary, was to be approached with caution. He was
seen as attempting a fundamental redefinition of international
relationships, on economic and environmental levels. His support "for
independence, democracy and social justice" was highlighted. But the
principle message taken from his speech was that of a new world order
based on pluralism, tolerance, and cooperation.[5]
“ For a new type of progress throughout the world to become a reality,
everyone must change. Tolerance is the alpha and omega of a new world
order. — Gorbachev, June 1990 ”
A month later, Time Magazine ran a longer analysis of the speech and
its possible implications. The promises of a new world order based on
the forswearing of military use of force was viewed partially as a
threat, which might "lure the West toward complacency" and "woo
Western Europe into neutered neutralism." The more overriding threat,
however, was that the West did not yet have any imaginative response
to Gorbachev—leaving the Soviets with the moral initiative, and
solidifying Gorbachev’s place as "the most popular world leader in
much of Western Europe." The article noted as important his de-
ideologized stance, willingness to give up use of force, commitment to
troop cuts in Eastern Europe (accelerating political change there),
and compliance with the ABM treaty. According to the article, the new
world order seemed to imply: shifting of resources from military to
domestic needs; a world community of states based on the rule of law;
a dwindling of security alliances like NATO and the Warsaw Pact; and,
an inevitable move toward European integration. The author of the Time
article felt that Bush should counter Gorbachev’s "common home"
rhetoric toward the Europeans with the idea of "common ideals,"
turning an alliance of necessity into one of shared values.
Gorbachev’s repudiation of expansionism leaves America in a good
position, no longer having to support anti-communist dictators, and
able to pursue better goals: the environment, nonproliferation of
nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons, reducing famine and
poverty, and resolving regional conflicts.[6] Similarly, in A World
Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft’s concern about losing leadership to
Gorbachev is noted, and they worry that the Europeans might stop
following the U.S. if it appears to drag its feet.[7]
As Europe passed into the new year, the implications of the new world
order for the European Community surfaced. The EC was seen as the
vehicle for integrating East and West in such a manner that they could
"pool their resources and defend their specific interests in dealings
with those superpowers on something more like equal terms." It would
be less exclusively tied to the U.S., and stretch "from Brest to Brest-
Litovsk, or at least from Dublin to Lublin."[8] By July 1989,
newspapers were still criticizing Bush for his lack of response to
Gorbachev’s proposals. Bush visited Europe but "left undefined for
those on both sides of the Iron Curtain his vision for the new world
order", leading commentators to view the U.S. as overly cautious and
reactive, rather than pursuing long-range strategic goals.[9]
[edit] The Malta Conference
George H. W. Bush.
In A World Transformed, Bush and Scowcroft craft a strategy of
flooding Gorbachev with proposals at the Malta Conference to catch him
off guard, preventing the U.S. from coming out of the summit on the
defensive.[10]
The Malta Conference of 2-3 December 1989 reinvigorated discussion of
the new world order. Various new concepts arose in the press as
elements on the new order. Commentators expected the replacement of
containment with superpower cooperation. This cooperation might then
tackle problems such as reducing armaments and troop deployments,
settling regional disputes, stimulating economic growth, lessening
East-West trade restrictions, the inclusion of the Soviets in
international economic institutions, and protecting the environment.
Pursuant to superpower cooperation, a new role for NATO was forecast,
with the organization perhaps changing into ...
read more »
mrliu918
2009-07-11 08:59:51 UTC
Permalink
Quotation:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Arab_Egypt
Loading Image...
http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander00.html
http://www.isidore-of-seville.com/Alexanderama.html


Alexander the Great


Alexander, bust from Delos (Louvre)
Alexander the Great (*356; r. 336-323): the Macedonian king who
defeated his Persian colleague Darius III Codomannus and conquered
the
Achaemenid Empire. During his campaigns, Alexander visited a.o.
Egypt,
Babylonia, Persis, Media, Bactria, the Punjab, and the valley of the
Indus. In the second half of his reign, he had to find a way to rule
his newly conquered countries. Therefore, he made Babylon his capital
and introduced the oriental court ceremonial, which caused great
tensions with his Macedonian and Greek officers. A short biography
can
be found here.
1 Youth 7 The Levant 13 The Punjab
2 Restoring order in Greece 8 Son of Ammon 14 The return
3 The Persian campaign 9 Assyria and Babylonia 15 Lord of all
4 From Caria to Pamphilia 10 The end of Persia 16 Death in Babylon
5 The Anatolian highland 11 King of Asia 17 Civil war
6 Issus 12 The way to dusty death 18 The fourth beast
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Start with Web Biographies or Alexander in Brief for biographies long
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亞歷山大大帝(希臘語:Μέγας Αλέξανδρος或Αλέξανδρος ο Μέγας,其名字亞歷山大意為「人類的(ανδρός)守護

(αλέξω)」;公元前356年7月22日-前323年6月10日)即馬其頓國王亞歷山大三世(Αλέξανδρος Γ' ο
Μακεδών)。
他維持了以馬其頓領導的統一希臘諸城邦,並征服了波斯及其它亞洲王國,直至印度的邊界。他用13年時間征服了當時歐洲視角的「已知世界」,被認為是歷

上重要的軍事家。


目錄 [隱藏]
1 當時的地理環境
1.1 形式奇特的國家
2 生平
2.1 早年(356..~336..)
2.2 繼位和鞏固政權(前336年~前335年)
2.3 波斯出征初期(前334年~前333年)
2.4 伊蘇至高加美拉(前333年~前331年)
2.5 追捕大流士三世(前331年~前330年)
2.6 中亞細亞(前330年~前327年)
2.7 印度(前327年~前326年)
2.8 返回波斯(前326年~前325年)
2.9 末年(前324年~前323年)
3 遺留的格局
3.1 帝國分裂,繼業者戰爭(前322年~前281年)
3.2 古希臘全盛後期
4 亞歷山大大帝生平年表
5 參考文獻
5.1 同期記載
5.2 後期傳記
5.3 當代文獻
6 亞歷山大大帝麾下主要將領
7 關於亞歷山大大帝的圖片


History of Arab Egypt
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
History of Egypt

This article is part of a series
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Ancient Egypt
Persian Egypt
Ptolemaic Egypt
Roman Egypt
Christian Egypt
Arab Egypt
Ottoman Egypt
Muhammad Ali dynasty
Modern Egypt

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Egypt Portal
v • d • e
History of the Arab States

Arab Caliphate [show]
Rashidun 632-661
Umayyads 661-750
Abbasids 750-1258
Fatimids 909–1171

Mashriq Dynasties [show]
AD
Tulunids 868-905
Hamdanid dynasty 890-1004
Ikhshidid dynasty 935-969
Uqaylid Dynasty 990-1096
Zengid dynasty 1127-1250
Ayyubid dynasty 1171-1246
Bahri Mamluks 1250-1382
Burji Mamluks 1382–1517

Maghrib Dynasties [show]
Saadi dynasty 750–1258
Muhallabids 771-793
Rustamid Dynasty 776-909
Idrisid dynasty 788-985
Aghlabid 800-909
Almoravid dynasty 1073-1147
Almohad dynasty 1147-1269
Hafsid dynasty 1229-1574
Marinid dynasty 1258-1420
Wattasid dynasty 1420-1547

During the initial Islamic invasion in 639 AD, Egypt was ruled at
first by governors acting in the name of the Righteous Caliphs, and
then the Ummayad Caliphs in Damascus but, in 747, the Ummayads were
overthrown and the power of the Arabs slowly began to weaken. Although
Egypt remained under the nominal rule of the Abbasid Caliphate, its
rulers were able to establish quasi-independent dynasties, such as
those of the Tulunids and the Ikhshidids. In 969 the Ismaili Shi'a
Fatimid dynasty from Tunisia conquered Egypt and established its
capital at Cairo. This dynasty lasted until 1174, when Egypt came
under the rule of Saladin, whose dynasty, the Ayyubids, lasted until
1252. The Ayyubites were overthrown by their Turkish bodyguards, known
as the Mamluks, who ruled under the suzerainty of Abbasid Caliphs
until 1517, when Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire.

Contents [hide]
1 The Islamic Conquest of Egypt
2 The Fatimid Period
3 Ayyubid Period
4 Mamluk Egypt
4.1 Bahri dynasty
4.2 Burji dynasty
5 References
6 See also



[edit] The Islamic Conquest of Egypt
Main article: Islamic conquest of Egypt

The Age of the Caliphs
Prophet Mohammad, 622-632

Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661

Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750
mrliu918
2009-08-10 10:26:59 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boxing_at_the_Summer_Olympics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population

Boxing at the Summer Olympics
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Boxing at the Summer Olympics

Medalists

Boxing has been contested at every Summer Olympic Games since its
introduction to the program at the 1904 Summer Olympics, except for
the 1912 Summer Olympics in Stockholm, because Swedish law banned the
sport at the time. The 2008 Summer Olympics was the final games with
boxing as a male only event. Beginning with the 2012 Summer Olympics,
women's boxing will be included in the programme.
[edit] Events
The boxing competition is organized as a set of tournaments, one for
each weight class. There have been between 5 and 12 Olympic weight
classes over the years (currently 11), and the definition of each
class has changed several times, as shown in the following table.
Until 1936, weights were measured in pounds, and from 1948 onwards,
weights were measured in kilograms.

^ Boxers were allowed to compete in multiple weight classes in 1904,
as long as they were not over the maximum weight for each class.
^ a b The division between Bantamweight and Featherweight was moved
from 118 lb to 119 lb for 1932-1936.
[edit] Medal Table
Rank Nation Gold Silver Bronze Total
1 United States (USA) 48 23 38 109
2 Cuba (CUB) 32 19 12 63
3 Italy (ITA) 15 13 16 44
4 Soviet Union (URS) 14 19 18 51
5 Great Britain (GBR) 14 11 23 48
6 Hungary (HUN) 10 2 8 20
7 Poland (POL) 8 9 26 43
8 Russia (RUS) 8 3 9 20
9 Argentina (ARG) 7 7 10 24
10 South Africa (RSA) 6 4 9 19
11 Kazakhstan (KAZ) 5 4 4 13
12 East Germany (GDR) 5 2 6 13
13 Germany (GER) 4 9 9 22
14 France (FRA) 4 7 8 19
15 Bulgaria (BUL) 4 5 8 17
16 Thailand (THA) 4 3 6 13
17 Canada (CAN) 3 7 7 17
18 South Korea (KOR) 3 6 10 19
19 Yugoslavia (YUG) 3 2 6 11
20 Czechoslovakia (TCH) 3 1 2 6
21 Mexico (MEX) 2 3 7 12
22 North Korea (PRK) 2 3 3 8
23 Ukraine (UKR) 2 2 5 9
24 Finland (FIN) 2 1 11 14
25 China (CHN) 2 1 2 5
26 Romania (ROU) 1 9 15 25
27 Denmark (DEN) 1 5 6 12
28 Ireland (IRL) 1 4 7 12
29 Germany (EUA) 1 3 2 6
30 Norway (NOR) 1 2 2 5
Venezuela (VEN) 1 2 2 5
32 Kenya (KEN) 1 1 5 7
33 Netherlands (NED) 1 1 4 6
34 Belgium (BEL) 1 1 2 4
Mongolia (MGL) 1 1 2 4
36 New Zealand (NZL) 1 1 1 3
37 Algeria (ALG) 1 0 5 6
West Germany (FRG) 1 0 5 6
Uzbekistan (UZB) 1 0 5 6
40 Japan (JPN) 1 0 2 3
41 Dominican Republic (DOM) 1 0 1 2
42 Sweden (SWE) 0 5 6 11
43 Nigeria (NGR) 0 3 3 6
44 Uganda (UGA) 0 3 1 4
45 Philippines (PHI) 0 2 3 5
Turkey (TUR) 0 2 3 5
47 Spain (ESP) 0 2 2 4
48 Belarus (BLR) 0 2 0 2
49 Puerto Rico (PUR) 0 1 5 6
50 Australia (AUS) 0 1 3 4
Egypt (EGY) 0 1 3 4
52 Chile (CHI) 0 1 2 3
Ghana (GHA) 0 1 2 3
54 Cameroon (CMR) 0 1 1 2
Unified Team (EUN) 0 1 1 2
56 Australasia (ANZ) 0 1 0 1
Czech Republic (CZE) 0 1 0 1
Estonia (EST) 0 1 0 1
Tonga (TGA) 0 1 0 1
60 Azerbaijan (AZE) 0 0 4 4
61 Colombia (COL) 0 0 3 3
Morocco (MAR) 0 0 3 3
63 Tunisia (TUN) 0 0 2 2
Moldova (MDA) 0 0 2 2
65 Armenia (ARM) 0 0 1 1
Bermuda (BER) 0 0 1 1
Brazil (BRA) 0 0 1 1
Georgia (GEO) 0 0 1 1
Guyana (GUY) 0 0 1 1
India (IND) 0 0 1 1
Mauritius (MRI) 0 0 1 1
Niger (NIG) 0 0 1 1
Pakistan (PAK) 0 0 1 1
Syria (SYR) 0 0 1 1
Uruguay (URU) 0 0 1 1
Zambia (ZAM) 0 0 1 1
Total 226 226 390 842

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_population


World population
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Population density (people per km²) by country, 2006
Population by region as a percentage of world population (1750–2005)
The term world population commonly refers to the total number of
living humans on Earth at a given time. As of 10 August 2009, the
Earth's population is estimated by the United States Census Bureau to
be 6.777 billion.[1] The world population has been growing
continuously since the end of the Black Death around 1400.[2] There
were also short term falls at other times due to plague, for example
in the mid 17th century (see graph). The fastest rates of world
population growth (above 1.8%) were seen briefly during the 1950s then
for a longer period during the 1960s and 1970s (see graph). According
to population projections, world population will continue to grow
until around 2050. The 2008 rate of growth has almost halved since its
peak of 2.2% per year, which was reached in 1963. World births have
levelled off at about 134-million-per-year, since their peak at 163-
million in the late 1990s, and are expected to remain constant.
However, deaths are only around 57 million per year, and are expected
to increase to 90 million by the year 2050. Since births outnumber
deaths, the world's population is expected to reach about 9 billion by
the year 2040.[3][4]
Contents
[hide]
1 Population figures
2 Rate of increase
2.1 Models
2.2 Milestones
2.3 Years for population to double
3 Distribution
4 The world's most populous nations
5 Ethnicity
6 Demographics of youth
7 Forecast
8 Predictions based on population growth
9 Number of humans who have ever lived
10 See also
11 Further resources
12 References
13 External links


世界人口
维基百科,自由的百科全书
跳转到: 导航, 搜索
2006年人口密度 (人每平方公里)
按地區世界人口分佈(1750年–2005年)
世界人口是指地球上在某一时间的人口总和。
根據美國人口普查機構的調查顯示,全世界的人口數在2009年3月31日時,已近67.7亿。[1]据某些估计,世界上约有10亿人口在15至24岁之
间。
目录
[隐藏]
1 人口爆炸
2 人口分佈
3 每增加10億人所需的時間
4 每增加人口一倍所需的時間
5 参见
6 外部連結


[编辑] 人口爆炸
主条目:人口過多
由於工業化和糧食生產技術進步,促使全球多數地方的出生率上升,加上醫學科技的發達導致死亡率大為下降,世界人口在20世紀的短短百年間,出現快速且大
量的增長,科學家稱此種人口自然增加率大幅增加的現象為人口爆炸。
[编辑] 人口分佈
人口分佈(百萬人)[2] 年份 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 1999 2008
2050 2150
世界 791 978 1,262 1,650 2,521 5,978 6,707 8,909 9,746
非洲 106 107 111 133 221 767 973 1,766 2,308
亞洲 502 635 809 947 1,402 3,634 4,054 5,268 5,561
歐洲 163 203 276 408 547 729 732 628 517
拉丁美洲及加勒比海* 16 24 38 74 167 511 577 809 912
北美洲* 2 7 26 82 172 307 337 392 398
大洋洲 2 2 2 6 13 30 34 46 51
人口分佈(percentage distribution) 年份 1750 1800 1850 1900 1950
1999 2008 2050 2150
世界 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
非洲 13.4 10.9 8.8 8.1 8.8 12.8 14.5 19.8 23.7
亞洲 63.5 64.9 64.1 57.4 55.6 60.8 60.4 59.1 57.1
歐洲 20.6 20.8 21.9 24.7 21.7 12.2 10.9 7.0 5.3
拉丁美洲及加勒比海 * 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.5 6.6 8.5 8.6 9.1 9.4
北美洲* 0.3 0.7 2.1 5.0 6.8 5.1 5.0 4.4 4.1
大洋洲 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
不同時期世界人口估計(千人) 年份 世界 非洲 亞洲 歐洲 拉丁美洲* 北美洲* 大洋洲
前70,000 < 1,000 [3]
前10,000 1,000
前9000 3,000
前8000 5,000 [4]
前7000 7,000
前6000 10,000
前5000 15,000
前4000 20,000
前3000 25,000
前2000 35,000
前1000 50,000 [4]
前500 100,000 [4]
1 200,000 [5]
1000 310,000
1750 791,000 106,000 502,000 163,000 16,000 2,000 2,000
1800 978,000 107,000 635,000 203,000 24,000 7,000 2,000
1850 1,262,000 111,000 809,000 276,000 38,000 26,000 2,000
1900 1,650,000 133,000 947,000 408,000 74,000 82,000 6,000
1950 2,518,629 221,214 1,398,488 547,403 167,097 171,616 12,812
1955 2,755,823 246,746 1,541,947 575,184 190,797 186,884 14,265
1960 2,981,659 277,398 1,674,336 601,401 209,303 204,152 15,888
1965 3,334,874 313,744 1,899,424 634,026 250,452 219,570 17,657
1970 3,692,492 357,283 2,143,118 655,855 284,856 231,937 19,443
1975 4,068,109 408,160 2,397,512 675,542 321,906 243,425 21,564
1980 4,434,682 469,618 2,632,335 692,431 361,401 256,068 22,828
1985 4,830,979 541,814 2,887,552 706,009 401,469 269,456 24,678
1990 5,263,593 622,443 3,167,807 721,582 441,525 283,549 26,687
1995 5,674,380 707,462 3,430,052 727,405 481,099 299,438 28,924
2000 6,070,581 795,671 3,679,737 727,986 520,229 315,915 31,043
2005 6,453,628 887,964 3,917,508 724,722 558,281 332,156 32,998
2008 6,706,993 972,752 4,053,868 731,683 577,147 337,168 34,375 [2]
年份 世界 非洲 亞洲 歐洲 拉丁美洲* 北美洲* 大洋洲

*北美洲包括北美洲北部的國家和地區:加拿大,美國,格陵蘭,百慕大及圣皮埃尔和密克隆群岛。拉丁美洲包括中美洲(墨西哥,中美洲的國家,加勒比海)及
南美洲的國家。
聯合國估計名大洲人口分佈(千人)[6][7][8] 年份 世界 非洲 亞洲 歐洲 拉丁美洲 美國及加拿大 大洋洲
2000 6,070,581 795,671 (13.1%) 3,679,737 (60.6%) 727,986 (12.0%)
520,229 (8.6%) 315,915 (5.2%) 31,043 (0.5%)
2005 6,453,628 887,964 (13.8%) 3,917,508 (60.7%) 724,722 (11.2%)
558,281 (8.7%) 332,156 (5.1%) 32,998 (0.5%)
2010 6,830,283 984,225 (14.4%) 4,148,948 (60.7%) 719,714 (10.5%)
594,436 (8.7%) 348,139 (5.1%) 34,821 (0.5%)
2015 7,197,247 1,084,540 (15.1%) 4,370,522 (60.7%) 713,402 (9.9%)
628,260 (8.7%) 363,953 (5.1%) 36,569 (0.5%)
2020 7,540,237 1,187,584 (15.7%) 4,570,131 (60.6%) 705,410 (9.4%)
659,248 (8.7%) 379,589 (5.0%) 38,275 (0.5%)
2025 7,851,455 1,292,085 (16.5%) 4,742,232 (60.4%) 696,036 (8.9%)
686,857 (8.7%) 394,312 (5.0%) 39,933 (0.5%)
2030 8,130,149 1,398,004 (17.2%) 4,886,647 (60.1%) 685,440 (8.4%)
711,058 (8.7%) 407,532 (5.0%) 41,468 (0.5%)
2035 8,378,184 1,504,179 (18.0%) 5,006,700 (59.8%) 673,638 (8.0%)
731,591 (8.7%) 419,273 (5.0%) 42,803 (0.5%)
2040 8,593,591 1,608,329 (18.7%) 5,103,021 (59.4%) 660,645 (8.0%)
747,953 (8.7%) 429,706 (5.0%) 43,938 (0.5%)
2045 8,774,394 1,708,407 (19.5%) 5,175,311 (59.0%) 646,630 (7.4%)
759,955 (8.7%) 439,163 (5.0%) 44,929 (0.5%)
2050 8,918,724 1,803,298 (20.2%) 5,217,202 (58.5%) 653,323 (7.3%)
767,685 (8.6%) 447,931 (5.0%) 45,815 (0.5%)

[编辑] 每增加10億人所需的時間

每增加10億人所需的時間
人口
(億人) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
年份 1804年 1927年 1959年 1974年 1987年 1999年 2012年 2025年 2040年
所需時間(年) 123 32 14.75 13.25 12.25 12.33 13 15

[编辑] 每增加人口一倍所需的時間

每增加人口一倍所需的時間
以2.5千萬人起跳 以3.75千萬人起跳
人口
(億人) 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8 0.375 0.75 1.5 3 6
年份 950年 1600年 1804年 1927年 1974年 2025年 1420年 1720年 1875年 1959年 1999年
所需時間(年) 650 204 123 47 51 300 155 84 40

世界人口 前10,000年–2000年
世界人口 前10,000年–2000年 log y scale
世界人口 1950年–2000年
世界人口 1950年–2000年 logarithmic scale

[编辑] 参见
人口
人口普查
世界政区
国家人口列表
[编辑] 外部連結
^ World Population Information: [1]
^ UN report 2004 data
^ fewer than 15,000 individuals according to the Toba catastrophe
theory; see also Humans lived in tiny, separate bands for 100,000
years (breitbart.com)
^ 4.0 4.1 4.2 an average of figures from different sources as listed
at the US Census Bureau's Historical Estimates of World Population;
see also *Kremer, Michael. 1993. "Population Growth and Technological
Change: One Million B.C. to 1990," The Quarterly Journal of Economics
108(3): 681-716.
^ The range of figures from different sources as listed at the US
Census Bureau's Historical Estimates of World Population put the
population at 1 AD between 170 million to 400 million.
^ 引用错误 无效<ref>标签;未为name属性为unpp的引用提供文字; $2
^ Population Growth over Human History
^ The World at Six Billion
[3]
来自“http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E4%BA%BA%E5%8F%A3”
mrliu918
2009-08-10 10:35:37 UTC
Permalink
八珍 - 真假虎肉暂时难以鉴定 The Market for Tiger Products on Taiwan A survey
http://gb.cri.cn/3821/2005/08/26/***@674803.htm
http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AB%E7%8F%8D&variant=zh-tw
http://www.earthtrust.org/tiger.html

八珍
維基百科,自由的百科全書
跳轉到: 導航, 搜尋
八珍可分成山八珍、海八珍、禽八珍及草八珍四類。
山八珍:駝峰,熊掌,猴腦,猩唇,象攏,豹胎,犀尾,鹿筋
海八珍:燕窩,魚翅,大烏參,魚肚,魚骨,鮑魚,海豹,狗魚(大鯢)
禽八珍:紅燕,飛龍,鵪鶉,天鵝,鷓鴣,彩雀,斑鳩,紅頭鷹
草八珍:猴頭,銀耳,竹蓀,驢窩菌,羊肚菌,花菇,黃花菜,雲香信
[編輯] 其他意思
八珍國際:香港食品製造商,以「八珍甜醋」最為著名
八珍炒麵:香港的一種炒麵,有八種材料的配菜
[編輯] 參考資料
古今八珍是什麼各朝代都不相同
取自"http://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AB%E7%8F
%8D&variant=zh-tw"
1個分類: 中國食品

Tiger Populations by Subspecies
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Threatened Species Data/
Status Report for 1992 gives the following estimated numbers for each
of the tiger subspecies:
P.t. altaica Amur (Siberian) Tiger 230-400
P.t. amoyensis South China Tiger 30-50
P.t. balica Bali Tiger extinct in 1940s
P.t. corbetti Indochinese Tiger 1000-1500
P.t. sondaica Javan Tiger extinct in 1980s
P.t. sumatrae Sumatran Tiger 500-1000
P.t. tigris Indian (Bengal) Tiger 3000
P.t. virgata Caspian Tiger extinct in 1970s
total: 4760-5950

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黑龙江饭店自称卖老虎肉 辣炒一盘800元(组图)
编辑: 杨莉 2005-08-26 08:47:51 稿源: 国际在线
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虎福楼饭庄紧挨虎园大门

800元一盘的“辣爆虎肉”
老虎肉
  孤寂的301国道在越过海林市横道河子镇时突然变得热闹起来,路边饭店林立,往来车辆素有在此“歇脚”、“打尖”的习惯。
  路边饭店出售“老虎肉”
  7月17日中午时分,记者一行途径横道河子镇,在紧挨301国道的一家筋饼店吃饭时,老板向记者推荐老虎肉,起初以为老板只为逗顾客一乐,可后来从
老板严肃而诚恳的表情发觉对方说的并非是玩笑。
  该筋饼店老板称,虎肉7000元一公斤,来源是距饭店不足一公里的国家东北虎繁育基地——横道河子东北虎林园。
  8月11日10时,记者一行三人再次来到这家筋饼店,见来了客人,一女服务员热情相迎。
  记者:“你这儿都有哪些野味啊?”
  服务员(操着南方口音):“啥都有,您想吃什么?有鹿肉、野猪肉、飞龙、野鸡。”
  记者(压低声音):“有老虎肉吗?”
  服务员:“哎呀,老板没在家,没处弄去。”
  见记者要走,女服务员连忙说:“没事,老板不在也弄得着。”边说边到柜台打电话。
  女服务员回到记者三人的包间后,问:“来多少?”
  记者:“多少钱一盘?”
  服务员:“600(元)。”
  记者:“是新鲜的吗?”
  服务员:“都是冻的,保新鲜。”
  记者:“一斤多少钱?”
  服务员:“3500(元),不讲价。”
  记者嫌虎肉太贵,借故离开。“别人家贵贱你买不着!”记者身后传来女服务员不满的声音。
  辣爆虎肉称“山猫肉”
  经人指点,记者一行三人于11日10时30分到达“虎园饭店”。“虎园饭店”是横道河子东北虎林园大门一侧的一个三层楼的饭店,名为“虎福楼饭
庄”。跳过饭店一楼的窗子就可直接进入虎园。
  在饭店前厅,一位负责人模样的年轻女士接待了记者。说明来意后,年轻女士称该店虎肉800元一盘,不讲价。
  记者说:“别人家才600,你这咋这么贵?”
  “600的你敢吃吗?”年轻女士反问,“他们能买得到真虎肉吗?都是骗人的!”怕记者不信,年轻女士又补充说:“我家的我敢保(真),不信你可以拿
去随便化验!”
  当记者问为什么要做成“辣爆虎肉”时,饭店人员说虎肉有一股骚味,其他的烹饪方法很难去掉这股骚味。
  记者推说要请的那位客人晚上才能到,于是将午宴改成了晚宴。
  18时,“姗姗来迟”的本报另两名记者与先期赶到的三名记者在虎福楼饭店雅间落座。
  服务员向众人推荐喝虎骨酒,称精装的600元钱一瓶,打折后550元,普通的150元。记者让服务员将两样酒各拿来一瓶看看再说。记者看到,服务员
端上来的两瓶酒不仅包装不同,酒的颜色也不同,包装上无厂名厂址,只标注着“壮骨酒”三个大字,大字下方印了一行小字:“横道河子东北虎林园”。记
者“嫌贵”,将酒退掉。
  待尖椒干豆腐、葱炒笨鸡蛋一类的菜上完后,服务员隆重地报出了本席主打菜——“山猫肉”。
  “不说是老虎肉吗?”记者佯装不解。
  “我们这儿不让这么报菜名。”服务员说。
  “不这么报菜名我们这顿饭不白请了,钱不白花了吗?”
  见记者着急的样子,服务员忙说,“这(菜)就是我们虎园里养的老虎(肉)……”
  “老虎肉”闻起来有一股骚味。或许是记者们太“胆小”了,大家都没有吃。
  饭店自称“取肉有道”
  “为什么你家就能弄到真的老虎肉,别人家就不能?”“怎么能证明你家的虎肉是真的?”吃饭前,记者与虎福楼的服务员进行了交流。
  “当然是有关系的啦!” 服务员说,“我们老板和场长关系好,场长只供应我们家。”
  服务员所说的“场长”的“场”是指“横道河子猫科动物繁育饲养场”,它与“横道河子东北虎林园”是一个单位。据了解,这家“虎福楼饭庄”也是饲养场
办的企业承包给了个人。
  横道河子虎园地区附近的老百姓对在当地能吃到老虎肉的说法并不奇怪。
  镇内一家饭店的老板对记者说,如果虎园里有人(指有关系、有门路),500元钱就能买到一斤老虎肉。拉记者的出租车司机也说,他借乘客吃饭的光吃过
虎肉。得知记者一行要吃虎肉,出租车司机还主动打电话帮忙联系,并转告记者说,“现在肉紧缺,少于3500元一斤买不到。”
  真假虎肉暂时难以鉴定
  关于横道河子饭店里卖的虎肉是真是假,在当地说法也不一致。
  有知情人对记者说:“那虎肉都是假的,你们吃的都是用虎尿泡过的牛肉。”
  还有人信誓旦旦地说:“真的,绝对是真的,我托‘硬实人’买过。”
  那么,饭店里出售的虎肉到底是真是假呢?
  近日,记者将一块未烹制的“虎肉”拿到东北农业大学生命科学院、动物科学院找有关专家求证,专家们吃惊地说:“怎么可能吃虎肉?我们还从来没有鉴定
过老虎肉这一肉种。”
  东北农业大学生命科学院高主任告诉记者,由于目前学校现有资料库还没有掌握东北虎的基因族谱,因此如果想通过DNA马上鉴定出是否是老虎肉,暂时还
有一定困难。不过,如果有必要,他们可以作为一个研究课题进行研究、实验,过一段时间就能得出科学的鉴定结论。
  新闻背景
  贩卖虎肉违法
  《中华人民共和国刑法》第341条:非法猎捕、杀害国家重点保护的珍贵、濒危野生动物的,或者非法收购、运输、出售国家重点保护的珍贵、濒危野生动
物及其制品的,处五年以下有期徒刑或者拘役,并处罚金;情节严重的,处五年以上十年以下有期徒刑,并处罚金;情节特别严重的,处十年以上有期徒刑,并处
罚金或者没收财产。
  《中华人民共和国野生动物保护法》第22条:“禁止出售、收购国家重点保护野生动物或者其产品。因科学研究、驯养繁殖、展览等特殊情况,需要出售、
收购、利用国家一级保护野生动物或者其产品的,必须经国务院野生动物行政主管部门或者其授权的单位批准;需要出售、收购、利用国家二级保护野生动物或者
其产品的,必须经省、自治区、直辖市政府野生动物行政主管部门或者其授权的单位批准。”
来源:生活报

http://www.earthtrust.org/tiger.html


Tiger Populations by Subspecies
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Threatened Species Data/
Status Report for 1992 gives the following estimated numbers for each
of the tiger subspecies:
P.t. altaica Amur (Siberian) Tiger 230-400

P.t. amoyensis South China Tiger 30-50

P.t. balica Bali Tiger extinct in 1940s

P.t. corbetti Indochinese Tiger 1000-1500

P.t. sondaica Javan Tiger extinct in 1980s

P.t. sumatrae Sumatran Tiger 500-1000

P.t. tigris Indian (Bengal) Tiger 3000

P.t. virgata Caspian Tiger extinct in 1970s

total: 4760-5950


The Market for Tiger
Products on Taiwan
A survey
A REPORT BY EARTHTRUST
By Keith Highley
Earthtrust Taiwan
March 1993
Introduction: The world's vanishing tigers

In the past decade, most international conservationists have focused
on ending the trade in elephant ivory and, more recently in rhinoceros
horn, paying relatively little attention to the plight of the tiger.
This, despite the fact that three of the eight subspecies of tiger
(Javan, Bali and Caspian) are already extinct; and that the world's
tiger population is less than 6,000 animals (compared with slightly
over 10,000 for the five species of rhino and, according to 1989
figures, over 600,000 elephants).

Tigers have been protected under Appendix I - species threatened with
extinction - of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) since 1975, when the treaty
was first signed. However, legal protection has done very little to
safeguard the five surviving subspecies throughout their range:

The South China Tiger, shot by the thousands as a pest under a
P.R.C.government sponsored program in the 1950s and 1960s (Laurie
1989), is on the brink of extinction; less than 50 individuals
survive. As the name implies, it is native to China, the major
consuming market for tiger bones. Ironically, in 1959 when the
Siberian Tiger was declared a protected species, the South China Tiger
was condemned as a pest. Its chances of survival into the next century
are marginal.

Of the five subspecies of tiger, the Amur or Siberian tiger is the
largest, with the northernmost range. Earlier this century its
population fell to fewer than 100 animals but by 1990 had rebounded to
an estimated 350 due to a hunting ban and border closures under Soviet
rule. With the fall of communism however, illegal hunting has
dramatically increased and up to 50 tigers a year are lost to poachers
(Bernton 1993). In some cases the skins have reportedly been exchanged
for cars (Jackson 1992a) and a Siberian tiger is now worth roughly
"five used Toyotas."


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Tiger Populations by Subspecies
World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) Threatened Species Data/
Status Report for 1992 gives the following estimated numbers for each
of the tiger subspecies:
P.t. altaica Amur (Siberian) Tiger 230-400

P.t. amoyensis South China Tiger 30-50

P.t. balica Bali Tiger extinct in 1940s

P.t. corbetti Indochinese Tiger 1000-1500

P.t. sondaica Javan Tiger extinct in 1980s

P.t. sumatrae Sumatran Tiger 500-1000

P.t. tigris Indian (Bengal) Tiger 3000

P.t. virgata Caspian Tiger extinct in 1970s

total: 4760-5950

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The Sumatran Tiger is the sole survivor of three subspecies that once
populated Indonesia. Some tiger researchers privately acknowledge the
recently revised estimate of between 600-900 individuals is much too
high; probably no more than 250 tigers survive in fragmented habitat
across Sumatra. Loss of living space and an exploding human population
are reducing and pocketing suitable territory, making human-tiger
encounters more common and increasing the ease with which poachers can
kill their prey. Although accurate data on poaching in Indonesia is
not available, the one thousand-plus tiger skins registered with the
government (Dr. R. L. Tilson, pers. comm. 1992) is one indicator that
poaching is a serious problem.

The Indochinese Tiger is heavily poached throughout its range in SE
Asia. Like the other subspecies, habitat loss is fragmenting
populations. In Thailand, a major exporting point for tiger and other
wildlife products throughout the Far East, tigers number no more than
250 (Rabinowitz 1991) . According to one estimate, in Vietnam alone,
over 300 tigers a year were killed up to the 1970s and tiger pelts
were exported in great numbers to China (Jackson 1992b) . A 1992
investigation into the wildlife trade in Vietnam revealed tiger skins
for sale in many markets throughout Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Nha
Trang (Baird & Sly 1992). Markets in Laos, Cambodia and Burma also
offer tiger skins.

The Indian or Bengal Tiger lives mainly in India and Nepal. Until
recently, Project Tiger had been hailed as a model program responsible
for turning the tide in favor of India's tigers. In 1973, when the
program began, India had only 1,800 tigers but by 1989 the country-
wide total was believed to be more than 4,000 (Jackson 1990) - more
than half of the world's tigers. But recent revelations show that
wildlife officials, equating increased numbers to management
performance, have inflated tiger numbers. Moreover, poaching in India
is on the rise: one forest guard, upon discovering the identities of
poachers who had killed more than 20 tigers over the past two years,
was himself murdered; another tiger reserve has lost 18 tigers and
leopards to a gang of poachers (Jackson 1992c); and there have been
several seizures of tiger skins, the most recent in October 1992 when
the skins of 81 protected animals, including tigers and leopards were
taken in a New Delhi raid (Anon. 1992a).

Nepal's Bengal tigers are poached in increasing numbers as well.
Formerly, farmers laced carcasses of livestock killed by tigers with
poison to execute offending animals and eliminate further livestock
losses. Unfortunately, poachers have adopted the same technique. Royal
Chitwan National Park authorities say 10% of the parks tigers, now
numbering approximately 170, were poisoned in 1988 -1989. The assault
continued into 1990 when 25 tigers were killed or disappeared; and in
1991, five poachers who had poisoned three tigers were arrested
(Martin 1992a).


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Consuming nations and existing trade networks

As outlined in the above section trade in tiger skins continues, but
demand for tiger bones, used in traditional Chinese medicine and as an
ingredient in tonics, is clearly the driving force behind increased
poaching from the late 1980s. In some recent cases, poachers have
taken only bones and genitals, leaving once-valuable skins behind (Dr.
S.K. Dhungel, pers. comm. 1992). Skins are easily identifiable but
tiger bones can pass for pigs, cattle or other livestock and non-
endangered species.

The major consuming nations of tiger bones and other derivatives are
China, South Korea and Taiwan. Although comprehensive statistics on
trade are not available, an emerging picture shows these nations are
unquestionably the end consumers for tiger (and other cats) bones and
derivatives. The extremely high demand, combined with virtually non-
existent enforcement of both international and domestic protection
laws in consumer nations, makes the tiger's survival into the next
century doubtful.

Four of the five extant tiger subspecies once roamed China in the tens
of thousands. Today only a handful survive and the South China Tiger,
found only in China, is on the verge of extinction because of
government bounties offered for skins in the 1950s and 1960s. Between
1951-1955 an average of 400 skins were taken yearly (Laurie 1989).
Having exhausted their own supply of tigers, Chinese traders are
branching out and today it seems most roads in the trade lead to
China. In 1988, twenty sacks of bones were confiscated at a Nepal Post
Office near the Tibet border (Martin 1992a); and in 1991, five
poachers, believed to be responsible for the deaths of three tigers in
Nepal, were arrested for possessing bones from a tiger which had been
poisoned (Anon. 1991a). In both cases, the bones were bound for China.
Bones from tigers killed in India and Nepal are said to move through
Tibet into China via mail, rail or overland (Dr. S. K. Dhungel, pers.
comm. 1992).

Taiwan and South Korea have also imported large amounts of bones over
the past decade. A few examples: TRAFFIC Japan reports that between
1985-1990, South Korea imported 1,700 kg of tiger bones, possibly
representing the deaths of over 50 Tigers. Twelve years ago,TRAFFIC
International cited an article in "Taiwan Trade Trends," which
reported that one Taiwanese brewery alone was importing 2,000 kg of
tiger bones yearly, representing the deaths of between 100-200 tigers
each year, to make 100,000 bottles of Tiger Bone Wine (Jackson 1991).

Bones from Siberian Tigers are easily moved into not only China
(Sievers 1992) but also North and South Korea. Slightly more than
halfway through 1992, twenty Amur Tigers had already been killed in
one reserve (Jackson 1992a). A team of investigators, posing as buyers
in southeast China, were offered four Amur pelts and were told an
additional eight could be made available (Low 1991). The same
investigators also saw the skins of six Indochinese tigers which, they
were told, had been smuggled into China at the Burma/Yunnan Province
border.

In the southernmost portion of the tiger's range, on the island of
Sumatra, a multi-tiered network beginning with the poacher collects
Sumatran tiger bones and sends them to neighboring Singapore where
they are sent on to either Hong Kong, China or Taiwan (Anon. 1992b). A
former hunter, interviewed by the author in Padang, Sumatra in
December of 1992, confirmed the relative ease and speed with which
tigers and other endangered species are ferried into Singapore. An
earlier report of Sumatran skins for sale in Singapore surfaced in
1988, when a British journalist was offered tiger skins and told he
could be supplied with ten pelts a month, mostly from Sumatran tigers.
Dealers claimed most of the buyers are from Singapore, Japan and
Taiwan (Jackson 1989).

Conservationists have long claimed a Thailand -Taiwan route brings
tigers (and their derivatives), rhino horn and other endangered
species onto Taiwan. In 1991 a shipment of three live tiger cubs bound
for Taiwan was seized in Bangkok. There have also been several
instances of live Indochinese tigers shipped into Taiwan from Bangkok
in 1989 and 1990 (Anon. 1990a). Investigators participating in this
survey (covered in depth later in this report) also note pharmacists
claim bones imported into Taiwan come from Thailand and China.

Vietnam is also becoming a prominent center for the trade in
endangered species products, including tigers. Besides viewing tiger
skins and a plethora of other endangered species in Vietnam in 1992, a
team of two investigators also interviewed an Indonesian animal
trader. Now living in Taiwan, the trader told the investigators he had
occasionally taken gibbons and baby bears into Taiwan and, over a
three month period, had smuggled 150 monkeys on to the island. He
claimed to work for Reach Shipping S. A., a shipping company, saying
getting animals past customs in Kaohsiung, a southern port city, was
"easy" (Baird & Sly 1992). As more and more Taiwanese fishing and
cargo vessels anchor in Vietnamese ports, and visits by Taiwanese
tourists and businessmen increase, opportunistic and organized
wildlife trade in tigers and other endangered species is sure to
grow.

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Market Survey
Methodology

This survey was conducted over a four month period in 1992 by three
investigators. All interviews were done covertly and investigators
used a variety of techniques to obtain information about possession of
tiger bone. Two successful interview techniques were to pose as a
buyer interested in purchasing fairly large quantities of tiger bone;
and to pose as a potential customer seeking a cure for an ailing
relative and curious about the curative powers of tiger bone. A total
of 115 traditional medicine shops in Taipei City and County were
surveyed.

Five investigators recruited for the survey resigned after meeting
with rejection and "suspicion" in their first attempts at conducting
interviews. Three potential investigators, who had initially agreed to
take part in the survey, opted out after the author repeatedly
reminded them that results of the survey might not reflect positively
on the ROC government (although that is not the intention of this
report).

The author and two additional investigators also conducted interviews
with traditional Chinese doctors, government officials and people
either involved in, or knowledgeable of the trade in live tigers,
tiger bones or other derivatives. In the majority of cases,
individuals providing information used in compiling this report have
requested anonymity, some because of involvement in the trade, and
others - employees of government agencies and university professors in
particular - because of a very real fear of persecution by their peers
for helping gather information on this controversial issue.

The availability and use of manufactured medicines and tiger bone
wines and other tonics has not been covered in this survey.

Finally, the trend of keeping tigers, either as pets or for financial
gain through illegal breeding on "farms"; and human consumption of
tiger meat, penises and other parts will be discussed.

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Tiger bones and other derivatives in Chinese medicine

Tiger bone, rhinoceros horn, bear gall bladders and other animal
products are used extensively in Chinese medicine. To better
understand this practice, it is helpful to understand Chinese
medicine, which is based on the principle of homeostasis.

One Hong Kong professor describes Chinese medicine as "an integrated
body of empirical knowl edge and experience developed in a similar way
to that of a person trying to detect the physical changes of a sealed
black box and to devise means to restore it to a 'normal' state" (But
et al. 1990). By observing a wide range of physical and biological
changes in humans, using a system of mutually opposing but interdepen
dent and interchanging points, a physician can determine the location,
nature, severity, and, in many cases, the cause of an illness. Upon
diagnosis, a combination of herbal materials is prescribed in an
effort to counter the imbalance(s) and restore the body's
equilibrium.

The use of of animal parts in Chinese medicine stems from the belief
that substances found in animal products are similar to those found in
our own bodies. Therefore, the potency of a substance found in an
animal drug will be many times more potent than that of a plant
compound (Dharmananda 1986).

According to Ben Cao Gang Mu (the Compendium of Materia Medica) the
tiger is a strong and fierce animal; even after death it can remain
upright due to its strong tendons (Li @ 1570). Therefore, the front
shank is the most potent and sought after bone because the animal's
energy is focussed there, but the skull and leg bones are also used
medicinally. The Chinese Medical Encyclopedia says the best tigers are
found in China's Canton Province [South China Tiger], followed by
Vietnam and Thailand [Indochinese Tiger] (Anon. 1979). In contrast, in
the Encyclopedia of Chinese Materia Medica (ZhongYao DaZiDian), the NE
tiger (Siberian) is considered superior (Anon. 1981).

Chinese Materia Medica lists two main uses for tiger bone. It is
considered excellent for ridding the body of infection and it is an
effective pain reliever (Anon. 1981). Many of the physicians
interviewed say tiger bone today is principally used to treat spasms
and pain, including various types of rheumatism; and to strengthen the
bones. It can also allegedly calm the nerves, increase intelligence,
cure dysentery, a prolapsed anus caused by chronic diarrhea, a bulging
anus, forgetfulness and dislodge bones stuck in the throat (Li 1570).
Sleeping on a tiger skull prevents nightmares and hanging the skull on
a door wards off evil (Anon. 1979).

In traditional Chinese medicine Tiger bone is consumed in powder form
and taken with water, mixed with other herbs or made into soups, wines
or pills. Prior to being used medicinally, raw bones must be
"treated," either baked, boiled or stir-fried (Li @1570).

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Survey results and discussion

Investigators visited retail pharmacies and a handful of dealers in
Taipei's infamous Di Hua Street, the island's main wholesale medical
district. Of the shops surveyed, prices, stated (and viewed) amounts
of tiger bone in possession and comments about the frequency of use
varied widely.

Of 115 shops surveyed a total of 68 shops (59.13%) were either in
possession of tiger bone or offered to purchase it for investigators.
Of these shops, 62 (53.91%) were actually in possession and 6 shops
could obtain the bone upon request. Amounts on hand ranged from less
than 1 liang (1 liang is equal to 50 grams but in traditional Chinese
medicine, the measure equates to 37.5 grams) to over two cases, each
case containing six "big" bags, with individual bags containing 10
large bones or 20-30 smaller bones.

Investigators were asked to inquire about possession and price only
and to broach the subject of amounts in possession only if a
shopkeeper seemed willing to talk. One investigator surveyed a total
of 40 shops and was able to get amounts for 22 shops (Table 1).
Although authentic tiger bones are widely avail able, the market seems
to be, in the words of one physician, "flooded" with the bones of
dogs, cattle, pigs and other animals. Differentiating between the
bones of tigers and other animals is, in many cases, extremely
difficult, especially when bones are broken into small pieces.
Therefore, it is quite possible that some of the amounts listed as
"authentic" in Table 1 are either a mixture of bones or the bones of
other animals altogether.

In Table 1 the majority of shops possessing relatively large amounts
of tiger bone are located in Taipei's primary wholesale medical
district, Di Hua Street. A number of these shops said they had access
to large quantities of tiger bone. Several shopkeepers in the Di Hua
area claim business is "good" and "sales are up." One shop
representative said he sells large quantities that are made into pills
and "medicine wine."

In the spring and summer of 1992 a visiting conservationist surveyed
(and filmed) 32 traditional medicine shops in Kaohsiung, Taipei,
Taizhong and other areas across the island. Of 32 shops surveyed, more
than 20 had one or more tiger products on full display (M.Day, pers.
comm. 1993).

While prices for 1 liang (37.5 grams) were given in every shop that
had tiger bone or fake bone, wholesale, kilogram prices were only
given in six instances and are shown in Table 2. Prices for supposedly
"authentic" tiger bone range from NT 20,000/kg (US$800.00) to NT
40,000/kg (US$1600).
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Table 1
Amounts of authentic, "mixed" and fake tiger bone in
possession for 22 traditional medicine shops.

Some amounts are given in TaiJin (jin). 1 jin is equal to 600 grams or
0.6 kilograms.
shop authentic mixture fake

1 1.5 jin .5 jin 0
2 1 jin 0 0
3 0 10 liang 0
4 0 0 3-4
5 5 jin 0 0
6 1 jin+ 0 0
7 1 liang 0 0
8 "much" - a 0 0
9* 4 bags - b 0 0
10* 2 cases - c 0 0
11* 4 cases - d 0 0
12 3 cases 0 0
13* 3 bags - e 0 0
14* 2-3 jin 0 0
15 0 1 jin 0
16 1.5 jin 0 0
17 1.5 jin 0 0
18* 1 jin 0 0
19* 2 cases 0 0
20* 3-4 cases 0 0
21* "much" 0 0
22* 5-6 jin 5-6 bones 0

note: a. has access to "unlimited supply." b. twenty bones per bag. c.
six big bags per case, larger bags have ten bones and smaller bags
have 20-30 bones, varying in size. d. offered to provide unlimited
amount to investigator. e. each bag contains 20-30 bones. * denotes
shops in the Di Hua Street area, Taipei's wholesale medical district.

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Table 2
Wholesale price per kg for authentic, "mixed" and fake tiger bone.
shop authentic mixture fake

1 NT33,333 - $1,333 none none

2 NT24,000 - $960 NT8,333 ($333) none

3 NT20,000 - $800 NT10,000 ($400) NT6,666($267)

4 NT20,000 - $800 none none

5 NT40,000 - $1,600 none none

6 NT23,333 - $583 NT6,666 ($267) none
note: Exchange rate used here is NT25-$1.00 USD.

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There is a substantial discrepancy when prices obtained in this survey
are compared to prices obtained in the earlier referenced 1992
investigation of 32 shops on Taiwan. Prices in that survey are given
as US$933 per kilo for "the more valuable upper leg bones" and US$480
per kilo for other bones (ibid.), much lower than prices recorded in
this survey.

Retail prices (per liang ) varied greatly from shop to shop. Many
pharmacists were straightforward about the prevalence of mixtures and
fake bones on the market and in their own shops, saying the bones of
deer, goats, dogs, pigs and sometimes bears are routinely passed off
as tiger bones. Some even offered tips on how to differentiate real
tiger bone from substitutes and warned investigators to beware of
expensive fakes. In many cases, two prices were given; a higher price,
ranging between NT400/ liang ($16.00) to NT 3,000/liang ($120.00) for
supposedly real tiger bone, and a lower price ranging from NT 30 /
liang to NT1,200/liang ($48.00) for admittedly fake or mixed bones.

Interestingly enough, regarding substitutes, some shopkeepers say that
other animal bones, including bear, cattle, and dog, are effective and
accepted.

Shops surveyed that do not (or claim not to) possess tiger bone say
they stopped stocking the contraband because of the lack of demand.
Only two merchants said tigers are a protected species and, therefore,
their derivatives could not be sold. Only eight shops said where their
stock came from three from Thailand and five from China. Several
indicated that Hong Kong or China was the best place to look for tiger
bones.

Samplings taken in this survey are insufficient to estimate a total
amount of tiger bone on Taiwan. Domestic, retail sales seem to be down
and amounts sold by retail pharmacists vary from 1-2 liang each month.
But much higher amounts are reportedly sold in the DiHua wholesale
district. The total amount of tiger bone amassed on the island is
unquestionably measurable in terms of metric tonnes, but whether that
amount is less than, say, five tonnes or significantly more is
anyone's guess.

Manufactured medicines and wines containing tiger bones are not
covered in this survey. (Investigators did see tiger bone pills, from
China, and "cubes" from Thailand.) Referring to the earlier mentioned,
twelve year old figure TRAFFIC International in a Taiwanese trade
journal annual imports of 2,000 kg each year by just one brewery to
make tiger bone wine (Jackson 1991) it may be possible that amounts
approaching this are still imported today for the same purpose. As
mentioned earlier one DiHua Street dealer says he sells substantial
quantities which are used to make pills and wine. Tiger bone wine is
still sold on Taiwan, as are pills, and more research into this area
will be undertaken.

Considering tiger bone, when compared with prices on Taiwan and in
other consumer nations, is still relatively inexpensive in tiger range
states in Laos, for example, it sells for as little as US$27-40/lb
(Martin 1992b) smugglers, middlemen and wholesalers in Taiwan will
certainly continue to trade and profit.


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Tiger slaughters: a thing of the past?

Public tiger slaughters in the mid-eighties were common throughout
Taiwan. In a four month period in 1984, seven tigers were slaughtered,
their parts auctioned off to the public (Anon. 1984a). The slaughters
were well advertised in advance: ads were taken out in local
newspapers, men paraded through villages banging drums, and on one
occasion a tiger slated for slaughter was paraded through villages in
the bed of a pick-up truck while a loudspeaker blared out the time,
date and venue of the slaughter (Anon. 1986). On yet another occasion
leaflets read: Hearing it a hundred times is nothing compared to
witnessing it with your own eyes a tiger will be butchered (Anon.
1984b). The events were well covered by the Taiwan press and often
drew as many as 1,000 spectators.

A typical slaughter brought in as much as NT300,000, or US$12,000 at
today's exchange rate, after subtracting the animal's initial price
tag of NT350,000 or US$14,000. The tiger's meat sold for US$32-40 per
catty, bones for US$600 per catty, leg bones for US$240 per catty, 50
bottles of blood (about 2,000cc of blood per tiger) for US$80 per
bottle, "head" for US$600, tail for US$240, and the tongue sold for US
$60 (Anon. 1984a). One owner said he didn't want to kill his tiger but
did so after it "had grown bad-tempered and savage." This tiger's
penis was sold for US$2,400 (Anon. 1984c).

The slaughters drew criticism from the expatriate community, civic
groups and local and international conservation organizations, so were
eventually driven underground. One merchant dealing in wild animals at
the time said, "only a few cases of tiger slaughters ever reach the
newspapers. Most are carried out in private" (Anon. 1984d). In 1984,
according to a Taipei City Zoo official, 100 tigers were on Taiwan, 60
in private hands. The official also said most people kept tigers "as a
source of income" (ibid.).

Today, tigers are protected by the ROC Wildlife Protection Law of
1989, yet tigers are still slaughtered. Their parts are auctioned off
to a select clientele, including restauranteurs who use the meat,
penis and other parts to prepare expensive, "exotic" dishes (Anon.
1990). One government agency employee says there are 80 tigers on
Taiwan. Due to a lack of manpower, the Taipei Department of
Reconstruction and Planning charged with monitoring all privately
owned endangered wildlife and other government agencies are unable to
adequately monitor the tigers. Nor is the department able to determine
whether or not they are breeding. As a result it is possible for off
spring to be sold without government knowledge.

More recent instances of tigers held in private hands or slaughtered
have surfaced: In 1991 residents in Taipei City reported a tiger (and
orangutan) kept in a flimsy dog cage on a city sidewalk. Fearing for
the safety of everyone, especially children who may stray too close to
the cage, residents filed a complaint (Anon. 1991b). The day after the
complaint was filed, newspapers ran the story and quoted a government
official as saying an "on-site" investiga tion would be conducted that
same day. By the time Department of Reconstruction and Planning
officials visited the location, the tiger was gone, and despite
Earthtrust requests for information, officials refused to comment on
the case. All investigations were dropped.

In 1990, to settle a dispute with a business partner, Lin Fu-An took
custody of seven lions, seven tigers and four bears brought to Taiwan
with the Royal London Circus. Lin claimed the circus lost US$2 million
while touring Taiwan but former circus employees say the circus toured
to packed houses and viewed Lin's scheme as a way of taking over
ownership of the circus animals (J. Althof. pers. comm.). The author
interviewed several circus employees and all said a litter of tiger
cubs was born while the circus toured, only to be sold in the city of
Kaohsiung. A second set of cubs was born, three died and their bodies
were never accounted for. In the end, in the face of unrelenting bad
press, Lin donated the eight tigers, including one cub and nine
surviving lions (including four cubs born during the ordeal) to the
Taipei Zoo and allowed the bear's legal owner to take them out of
Taiwan.

The incident was a microcosm of the many inherent law enforcement
problems and attitudes toward wildlife conservation on Taiwan; The
lions were fed very little and after months of growing weaker and
weaker, two died. "They're not endangered so it's no big deal," stated
one of Lin's employees. The first litter of live tiger cubs and the
three dead cubs from the second litter were almost certainly sold as
either pets or for human consumption. Lin Fu-An was convicted of
animal abuse the first such conviction in ROC history only to have the
decision overturned after appealing to Taiwan's high court (Anon.
1991c); and, in an effort to quiet his former employees, Lin Fu-An
dispatched a gang of men to beat two animal trainers one required
hospitalization who had complained of Lin to the press.

Other instances of tigers being kept as pets and /or consumed continue
to surface: One tiger "farmer" told a group of foreign
conservationists that between 200-300 tigers are in private hands on
Taiwan (Day and LaBudde 1993); a shipping company executive informed
the author of a slaughter in Kaohsiung in 1991 a man offered him tiger
meat and, perplexed, the executive asked how the man knew it was
actually tiger meat. The reply: "I saw them kill the tiger." The
author has received reports of two other farms, one in central Taiwan
and the other in the northern port city of Keelung.

An artist recently depicted a tiger slaughter he witnessed in Keelung.
The painting shows three men huddling over a skinned, unrecognizable
carcass. One of the men has just removed the tiger's heart. The artist
says he wants the painting to capsulize the event, for future
generations to see, finding it incredible that we as humans are still
capable of such cruelty.

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The tiger penis: aphrodisiac and exotic fare

The tiger is revered for its strength and sexual prowess. Chinese
legend has it that consuming parts of the tiger enables the user to
briefly harness the animal's power. Tie that belief in with the
Taiwanese obsession with sexual performance: newspapers advertise
various potions guaranteed to enhance a male's sexual ability and
allow him to better pleasure his partner. Promotions of sexual aids
have even found their way onto network television.

A traditional method of using tiger penises is to soak the penis in a
tonic or expensive brandy for extended periods at least six months
according to one source. Just prior to sex, the consumer takes a
"slug."

The author visited, in October 1992, a Snake Alley establishment
specializing in "mountain products" (the name implies, among other
things, exotic wildlife) and was allowed to view the sales pitch for a
tonic said to contain seal and tiger penises. The tonic costs US$8 a
shot and $US40 per bottle. Midway thought the pitch, as a group of at
least 30 men looked on, a hawker brought a scantily clad woman out of
a back room and stood her in front of his captive audience. Upon
noticing a foreign face in the crowd, the hawker ordered the other
patrons to crowd in front of the "outsider" as foreigners do not
understand Chinese ways. When none of the men complied, the hawker's
tone grew exceedingly violent and he began yelling directly at the
author and one other Westerner, at which point we departed.

In December 1992, a Taiwanese Earthtrust investigator visited the same
shop and recorded the entire event. The tonic in question, according
to the hawker, was guaranteed to vastly improve a man's sexual staying
power. "If you drink this," he joked, "tonight you won't be able to
get that zipper up!" At one point a prostitute was again brought out
for all to see. To prove the efficacy of the potion, the prostitute
was placed behind a thin, gauze-like screen some ten feet from her
audience. At the hawker's command and as the audience looked on, one
of his colleagues mounted the woman....

Exotic, unusual foods are also popular on Taiwan. One Taizhong based
restaurant, Pu Chung Pao, caters to the islands wealthy; in December
1992 the establishment prepared an NT500,000 or US$20,000 meal in the
recipe of the imperial court of the Ching Dynasty for a party of
fifteen (Anon. 1993b). The restaurant also serves tiger penis soup at
NT8,000 or US$320 per serving (Anon. 1991). In December 1992 a foreign
television station visited Pu Chung Pao and taped an interview with
the restaurant's head waitress, Miss "Casey." The full text of the
interview follows:
Interviewer: Please tell us what these items are.

Miss Casey: Let's start from here. This is a swallow's nest, the best
type. This is shark fin. This is dried sea cucumber. This is a tiger
penis. Underneath, the longer one, that is a deer penis, the ones in
the back are tiger penises. This is a cobra and that is Korean
ginseng.

I: Is the tiger penis imported?

C: All our tiger penises are imported, mostly from Northeast China and
Thailand. The ones from Northeast China are better tigers from cold
places are better.

I: How is it prepared?

C: As soup. This is already dried. First we soak it for about a week,
then when it's soft we start to simmer it. While it is simmering we
add about 24- types of medicine, kinds that are good for men. We
simmer it for between 24 and 26 hours.

I: Is it popular?

C: Yes, here in Taiwan. Especially among men.

I: How many do you serve a week?

C: We sell more in the winter, because it warms the body. People don't
eat the soup in summer. We serve it four or five times a season. It's
expensive so not many people eat it.

I: How much does it cost?

C: One tiger penis makes soup for eight people, it costs around eight
thousand NT. For 14 or 15 people, we use two tiger penises, then it
costs 16 thousand NT.

After portions of this interview ran on the island's English language
radio station in early December 1992, representatives of the
restaurant denied serving dishes containing tiger penises.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Recommendations

On paper, trade in tigers, tiger bones and all other derivatives is
illegal. In November 1986 the use of tiger bones and tiger bone "glue"
in manufactured medicines was outlawed and in 1989, under the ROC
Wildlife Conservation Law, trade in live wildlife and their products
was prohibited. No steps have been taken to implement either law. If
trade in tiger bone and other endangered species is to be arrested,
the following steps must be taken:

1. Establish a unit to investigate and arrest trade in endangered
species.

Such a unit would need law-enforcement power, total autonomy
(answering only to the president or other high level officials) and
qualified, dedicated personnel. The unit would ideally be modelled
after the South African Police Endangered Species Protec tion Unit
(ESPU) and/or the United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS),
recognized as two of the top endangered wildlife trade investigation
agencies in the world.

The system currently in place on Taiwan calls for enlisting police
officers, at the Council of Agriculture's (COA) request, to conduct
raids on pet shops, pharmacies, and restaurants serving endangered
species. (The COA is Taiwan's national "scientific authority.")
However, corruption and complacency in the ranks of law enforcement
(and customs) officials is rife and, under the current system, their
ability to expose smuggling networks is questionable.

ESPU Commander Major Pieter Lategan has already visited Taiwan in an
effort to forge better ties with government and law enforcement
officials. The USFWS was instrumental in setting up South Africa's
ESPU and has trained other units around the world. Ideally, personnel
from one or both of these units should be involved in training and
assisting with the creation of a similar unit on Taiwan.
The impact a Taiwanese Fish and Wildlife Service could have on trade
in endangered species must be emphasized here. Major Lategan has said
one or two significant busts would change the whole profile of
smuggling on the island. A small group of trained and dedi cated
Taiwanese personnel could, within its first months of operation,
easily infiltrate and stop a portion of the major smuggling rings
based in Taiwan.

The creation of an FWS type unit would be the single greatest
contribution Taiwan could offer to insure the survival of the world's
remaining tigers. It would demonstrate Taiwan's commitment to
protecting endangered wildlife and, in the process, help restore
Taiwan's severely tarnished international image.

2. Increase penalties.

The current system of fines and possible imprisonment for dealing in
tiger bone and other endangered species products is hardly a deterrent
to present and would-be traders. Article 33 of the Wildlife
Conservation Law calls for "a fine as well as a potential prison
sentence of up to two years" for trading in protected species.
Unfortunately, fines are disproportionately low. In the case of rhino
horn, for example, a November 1992 law states "frequent offenders"
dealing in the contraband face a US$1,200 fine less than the price of
a kg of horn. And in relation to possible jail terms, a substantial
loophole exists: Jail sentences of six months or less need not be
served and can be paid off with a fine. Lin Fu-An (covered in section
on Tiger slaughters) was sentenced to six months in jail when
convicted of animal abuse in 1990. Had he not appealed (and won) he
could have paid off his full sentence for less than US$400.

Improved legislation should also treat false advertising of products
containing tiger bone with the same severity as products actually
containing the substance. Otherwise, manufacturers of certain
medicines and tonics will be able to capitalize on traditional beliefs
in tiger bone and other protected wildlife goods only to avoid
prosecution, if caught, by claiming their products do not contain
proscribed substances and were only advertised as such.

Discussion regarding live tigers kept as pets is also necessary. Since
each of these animals were either illegally brought onto Taiwan or are
offspring of illegally bred tigers, they should be confiscated.

3. Increase government sponsored education programs.

Despite the availability of substitutes, Taiwan's traditional medicine
practitioners, on the whole, have been remarkably slow to adopt the
plausibility of substitutes for tiger bone. Lack of enforcement it is
quite likely that the majority of pharmacists on Taiwan have never
felt a ban on the use of these products would ever be enforced is
partially to blame for this attitude but education and the promotion
of alterna tives has also been inadequate.

To correct this problem, all available information on substitutes for
tiger bone, along with information on the precarious situation of the
species, new legislation, and other pertinent information should be
compiled and widely disseminated.

Public Service Announcements and other educational/promotional
materials should also be created and shown on national radio and
television, in the print media and in schools across Taiwan.

Increased education of customs, law enforcement and other pertinent
government officials is also a necessity. This could be done in
conjunction with the establishment of an endangered species trade unit
(detailed in item one of this section).

4. Contribute funds to conservation work in Tiger range states.

All Asian nations could do much more to protect their tigers from
poaching with increased funding. In 1992 Taiwan reportedly provided a
combined US$100 million in foreign aid to South Africa and Niger. And
according to the local press, the ROC recently decided to increase its
annual foreign aid budget to 0.15% of the Gross National Product
(GNP). The forecast of a US$229 billion GNP for 1993 means up to $344
million will be available for foreign aid use this year alone.

A fraction of this amount donated to Nepal, Indonesia, India and other
range states would enable them to improve their conservation effort
and better protect their tigers. A substantial donation might mean the
difference between the survival or extinction of certain vulnerable
populations, if not an entire species.

Many countries are finally realizing the importance of preserving
endangered species of wildlife for future generations (China, for
example, recently announced a US$52 million, ten year program to
restore and expand Panda habitat). Should Taiwan follow suit and
shoulder part of the financial burden for the global tiger
conservation effort, the action would be applauded by the
international community.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

References

for more information, contact:

EarthTrust
Windward Environmental Center
1118 Maunawili Road
Kailua, HI 96734 USA
(808) 261-5339

Return to Endangered Wildlife Initiative's main page

mrliu918
2009-07-20 10:52:47 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaiti_oil_fires
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebombing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo_in_World_War_II
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_London_in_World_War_II

Histoy of fire bombing

edit] See also
General Curtis E. LeMay, USAF
Bombing of Hamburg in World War II
Bombing of Dresden in World War II
Bombing of London in World War II
Bombing of Coventry in World War II
Bombing of Tokyo in World War II
Bombing of Frampol in World War II
Bombing of Wieluń in World War II
Bombing of Warsaw in World War II
Aerial bombing of cities

Kuwaiti oil fires
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

USAF aircraft fly over burning Kuwaiti oil wells

Aerial view of oil wells on fire

The oil fires caused a dramatic decrease in air quality, causing
respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis.
The Kuwaiti oil fires were a result of the scorched earth policy of
Iraqi military forces retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering
the country but being driven out by Coalition military forces (see
Gulf War).
The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of
sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas
around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was
necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6
million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Eventually,
privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of
US$1.5 billion to Kuwait.[1] By that time, however, the fires had
burned for months, causing widespread pollution.
The byproducts of the petroleum burn caused pollution to the soil and
air, and the oil fires have been linked in the popular imagination
with what was later called Gulf War Syndrome. Whether this syndrome
has been caused by the oil fires, by chemical attack, or other causes
has not been determined, and the longterm environmental effects of the
fires have yet to be fully understood.
During Operation Desert Storm, Dr. S. Fred Singer debated Carl Sagan
on the impact of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program
Nightline. Sagan said we know from the nuclear winter investigation
that the smoke would loft into the upper atmosphere and that he
believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of the
Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816
being known as the Year Without a Summer, in massive agricultural
failures, in very serious human suffering and, in some cases,
starvation.
He predicted the same for south Asia, and perhaps for a significant
fraction of the northern hemisphere as well as a result. Singer, on
the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go
to an altitude of about 3,000 feet (910 m) and then be rained out
after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke
would be limited.[2]
In retrospect, we now know that smoke from the Kuwait Oil Fires
dominated the weather pattern throughout the Persian Gulf and
surrounding region during 1991, and that lower atmospheric wind blew
the smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities
like Dhahran, Riyadh and Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled
skies and carbon fallout.[3]
The companies responsible for extinguishing the fires are Red Adair
Company (now sold off to Global Industries of Louisiana), Boots and
Coots (now Boots and Coots/IWC), Wild Well Control, Safety Boss, Cudd
Well/Pressure Control, Neal Adams Firefighters, and Kuwait Wild Well
Killers. All the wells were eventually fully extinguished and brought
back under control.
Contents
[hide]
1 Motives
2 Environmental impact


[edit] Motives
By the eve of the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait had set production quotas to
almost 1.9 million barrels per day (300,000 m³/d), which coincided
with a sharp drop in the price of oil. By the summer of 1990, Kuwaiti
overproduction had become a serious point of contention with Iraq.
Some analysts have speculated that one of Saddam Hussein's main
motivations in invading Kuwait was to punish the ruling al-Sabah
family in Kuwait for not stopping its policy of overproduction, as
well as his reasoning behind the destruction of said wells.[4]
[edit] Environmental impact
An oilfield on fire

A 2008 picture of the mummified remains of a bird, encrusted within
the top hard layer of a dry oil lake in the Kuwaiti desert.
Nearly 700 oil wells were set ablaze by the retreating Iraqi army and
the fires were not fully extinguished until November 6, 1991, eight
months after the end of the war. The fires consumed an estimated six
million barrels of oil daily.
Their immediate consequence was a dramatic decrease in air quality,
causing respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis. The sabotage of the
oil wells also impacted the desert environment, which has a limited
natural cleansing ability. Unignited oil from the wells formed about
300 oil lakes that contaminated around 40 million tons of sand and
earth.
The mixture of desert sand with the unignited oil and soot formed
layers of "tarcrete" which covered nearly five percent of the country.
[5] Cleaning efforts led by the Kuwait Institute for Scientific
Research and the Arab Oil Co., who have tested a number of
technologies including the use of petroleum-degrading bacteria,
produced significant results.
In fact, vegetation in most of the contaminated areas adjoining the
oil lakes began recovering by 1995, but the dry climate has also
partially solidified some of the lakes. Over time the oil has
continued to sink into the sand, with as yet unknown consequences for
Kuwait's precious groundwater resources.[4][6]
[edit] Popular culture
The fires were the subject of a 1992 IMAX documentary film, Fires of
Kuwait, which was nominated for an Academy Award. The film includes
footage of the Hungarian team using their jet turbine extinguisher.
The Kuwaiti oil fires are also featured in Werner Herzog's 1992 film
Lessons of Darkness.
The oil fires and black rain were also featured in the 2005 film
Jarhead, as well as the video game Eternal Darkness. There was also a
flyover of the oil fires in the movie Baraka. The Discovery Channel
filmed a documentary series about "The Inventors" which interviewed
Branko Babic about his Displacement Tube and Counter Pressure Plugs,
patent applied for inventions designed to contain the burning oil
wells.
[edit] See also
Environmental issues with war
[edit] References
^ Husain, T. (1995). Kuwaiti Oil Fires: Regional Environmental
Perspectives. Oxford: BPC Wheatons Ltd. pp. 68.
^ "FIRST ISRAELI SCUD FATALITIES OIL FIRES IN KUWAIT". Nightline
(ABC). 1991-01-22.
^ Patrick K. Dowling. "The Meteorological Effects of the Kuwait Oil
Fires". http://as.wm.edu/Abstracts/PatrickDowling.pdf.
^ a b "The Economic and Environmental Impact of the Gulf War on Kuwait
and the Persian Gulf". The Trade & Environment Database. American
University. 2000-12-01. http://www.american.edu/TED/kuwait.htm.
Retrieved on 2007-02-14.
^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0321kuwaitfire.html
^ Heather MacLeod McClain (2001). "Environmental impact: Oil fires and
spills leave hazardous legacy". CNN.
http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/gulf.war/legacy/environment/index.html.
Retrieved on 2007-02-03.
[edit] External links
Fighting the Oil Well Fires
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaiti_oil_fires"
This page was last modified on 17 July 2009 at 13:05.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike
License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
Privacy policy
About Wikipedia
Disclaimers


Bombing of London in World War II

Firebombing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

U.S forces drop Napalm on Viet Cong positions in 1965.

A Nazi German World War II incendiary bomb remnant
Firebombing is a bombing technique designed to damage a target,
generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by incendiary
devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs.
The tactic originated during World War II with the use of strategic
bombing to destroy the ability of the enemy to wage war. London,
Coventry and many other British cities were firebombed during the
Blitz. Many German cities, such as Hamburg, were extensively
firebombed starting in 1942. Almost all of the Japanese cities were
firebombed during the last six months of World War II.
This technique makes use of small incendiary bombs (possibly delivered
by a cluster bomb such as the Molotov bread basket[1]). If a fire
catches, it could spread, taking in adjacent buildings that would have
been largely unaffected by a high explosive bomb. This is a more
effective use of the payload that a bomber could carry.
The use of incendiaries alone does not generally start uncontrollable
fires where the targets are roofed with nonflammable materials such as
tiles or slates. The use of a mixture of bombers carrying high
explosive bombs, such as the British blockbuster bombs, which blew out
windows and roofs and exposed the interior of buildings to the
incendiary bombs, are much more effective. Alternatively, a
preliminary bombing with conventional bombs can be followed by
subsequent attacks by incendiary carrying bombers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Tactics
2 Popular culture
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References


[edit] Tactics
See also: Firestorm
Early in World War II many British cities were firebombed. Two
particularly notable raids were the Coventry Blitz on 14 November
1940, and the blitz on London on the night of 29 December/30 December
1940, which was the most destructive raid on London during the war
with much of the destruction caused by fires started by incendiary
bombs. During the Coventry Blitz the Germans pioneered several
innovations which were to influence all future strategic bomber raids
during the war.[2] These were: The use of pathfinder aircraft with
electronic aids to navigate, to mark the targets before the main
bomber raid; The use of high explosive bombs and air-mines
(blockbuster bombs) coupled with thousands of incendiary bombs
intended to set the city ablaze. The first wave of follow-up bombers
dropped high explosive bombs, the intent of which was knock out the
utilities (the water supply, electricity network and gas mains), and
to crater the road - making it difficult for the fire engines to reach
fires started by the follow-up waves of bombers. The follow-up waves
dropped a combination of high explosive and incendiary bombs. There
were two types of incendiary bombs: those made with magnesium and iron
powders, and those made of petroleum. The high-explosive bombs and the
larger air-mines were not only designed to hamper the Coventry fire
brigade, they were also intended to damage roofs, making it easier for
the incendiary bombs to fall into buildings and ignite them. As Sir
Arthur Harris, commander of the RAF Bomber Command, wrote after the
war:
In the early days of bombing our notion, like that of the Germans, was
to spread an attack out over the whole night, thereby wearing down the
morale of the civilian population. The result was, of course, that an
efficient fire brigade could tackle a single load of incendiaries, put
them out, and wait in comfort for the next to come along; they might
also be able to take shelter when a few high explosives bombs were
dropping. ... But it was observed that when the Germans did get and
effective concentration, ... then our fire brigades had a hard time;
if a rain of incendiaries is mixed with high explosives bombs there is
an temptation for the fireman to keep his head down. The Germans again
and again missed their chance, as they did during the London blitz
that I watched from the roof of the Air Ministry, of setting our
cities ablaze by a concentrated attack. Coventry was adequately
concentrated point of space, but all the same there was little
concentration in point of time, and nothing like the fire tornadoes of
Hamburg or Dresden ever occurred in this country. But they did do us
enough damage to teach us the principle of concentration, the
principle of starting so many fires at the same time that no fire
fighting services, however efficiently and quickly the were reinforced
by the fire brigades of other towns could get them under control.
– Arthur Harris[3]

The development of the tactical innovation of the bomber stream by the
RAF to overwhelm the German aerial defenses of the Kammhuber Line
during World War II would have increased the RAF's concentration in
time over the target, but after the lessons learned during the Blitz,
the concentration of dropping bombs over the target in the shortest
time possible became standard tactic of the RAF because it was known
to be more effective than spreading the raid over a longer time period.
[3] For example during the Coventry Blitz on the night of 14/15
November 1940, 515 Luftwaffe bombers many flying more than one sortie
against Coventry delivered their bombs in a raid that lasted more than
10 hours, while in contrast the much more devastating raid on Dresden,
Germany on the night of 13/14 of February 1945 by the two waves of the
Bomber Command's main force, the first wave released their first bomb
at 22:14, with all but one of the 254 Avro Lancaster bombers releasing
their bombs within two minutes, and the last one releasing at 22:22.
The second wave of 529 Lancasters dropped all of their bombs between
01:21 and 01:45. This means that in the first raid that on average one
Lancaster dropped it full load of bombs every half a second and in the
second larger raid that involved more than one RAF bomber Group, one
every three seconds.
The United States Army Air Force (USAAF) officially only bombed
precision targets over Europe, but for an unusual example, when 316
B-17 Flying Fortresses bombed Dresden in a follow-up raid at around
noon on the 14 February 1945, because of cloud the later waves bombed
using H2X radar for targeting.[4] The mix of bombs to be used on the
Dresden raid was about 40% incendiaries, much closer to the RAF city-
busting mix than the 100% high-explosive bomb-load usually used by the
Americans in precision bombardments.[5] This was quite a common mix
when the Army Air Force anticipated cloudy conditions over the target.
[6]
In its attacks on Japan the Army Air Force eventually abandoned its
policy of high-altitude precision bombing, and it used a mix of
incendiaries and high explosives to burn Japanese cities to the
ground. These tactics were used to devastating effect with many urban
areas burned out. The first raid using low-flying B-29 Superfortress
bombers carrying incendiary bombs to drop on Tokyo was on the night of
24-25 February 1945 when 174 B-29s destroyed around fifty square mile
(150 km²) of the city. Changing their tactics to expand the coverage
and increase the damage, 279 B-29s raided on the night of 9-10 March,
dropping around 1,700 tons of bombs. Approximately 16 square miles (41
km²) of the city were destroyed and some 100,000 people are estimated
to have died in the resulting firestorm, more than the immediate
deaths of either the Hiroshima or Nagasaki, Japan atomic bombings.[7]
Another example is the Bombing of Kobe, Japan on 17 March 1945, 331
B-29 bombers launched a firebombing attack against the city. Of the
city's residents, 80,841 were confirmed to have been killed in the
resulting firestorms, which destroyed an area of three square miles
and included 21% of Kobe's urban area. At the time, the city covered
an area of 14 square miles (36 km²). More than 650,000 people had
their homes destroyed, and the homes of another one million people
were damaged.[citation needed]
[edit] Popular culture
The Japanese animated film Grave of the Fireflies follows events after
the firebombing of Kobe, Japan.
Kurt Vonnegut's science fiction novel Slaughterhouse-Five is partially
based on his personal experience of the Bombing of Dresden, Germany,
firestorm.
In the movie 28 Weeks Later, firebombing was used to exterminate the
population infected with the 'Rage Virus'.
The novel Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close by Jonathan Safran Foer
contains narrative threads dealing with the Bombing of Dresden.
[edit] See also
General Curtis E. LeMay, USAF
Bombing of Hamburg in World War II
Bombing of Dresden in World War II
Bombing of London in World War II
Bombing of Coventry in World War II
Bombing of Tokyo in World War II
Bombing of Frampol in World War II
Bombing of Wieluń in World War II
Bombing of Warsaw in World War II
Aerial bombing of cities
Terror bombing
[edit] Notes
^ *Langdon Davies, John (June 1940). "The Lessons of Finland". Picture
Post.
^ Taylor, Fredrick; Dresden Tuesday 13 February 1945, Pub Bloomsbury
(First Pub 2004, Paper Back 2005). ISBN 0-7475-7084-1. Page 118
^ a b Arthur Harris. Bomber Offensive, (First edition Collins 1947),
Pen & Sword military classics 2005; ISBN 1-84415-210-3. Page 83
^ Davis p.504
^ Taylor p. 366. Taylor compares this 40% mix with the raid on Berlin
on February 3rd where the ratio was 10% incendiaries
^ Davis pp. 425,504
^ Freeman Dyson. Part I: A Failure of Intelligence. Technology Review,
November 1, 2006, MIT
[edit] References
Davis, Richard G. Bombing the European Axis Powers. A Historical
Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive 1939–1945 PDF. Alabama: Air
University Press, 2006
Harris, Arthur. Bomber Offensive, (First edition Collins 1947), Pen &
Sword military classics 2005; ISBN 1-84415-210-3.
Taylor, Fredrick; Dresden Tuesday 13 February 1945, Pub Bloomsbury
(First Pub 2004, Paper Back 2005). ISBN 0-7475-7084-1.
[hide] v • d • eWorld War II city bombing

Area bombardment · Aerial bombing of cities · Terror bombing · V-
Weapons

Aomori · Augsburg · Baedeker Raids · Bahrain · Barrow-in-Furness ·
Belfast · Belgrade · Berlin · Birmingham · Braunschweig · Bremen ·
Breslau · Brighton · Bristol · Bucharest · Budapest · Caen · Calcutta
· Cardiff · Chemnitz · Chişinău · Chongqing · Clydebank · Cologne ·
Coventry · Danzig · Darmstadt · Darwin · Dresden · Dublin ·
Duisburg · Düsseldorf · Essen · Frampol · Frankfurt · Frascati · Fukui
· Fukuoka · Fukuyama · Gelsenkirchen · Gibraltar · Gifu · Greenock ·
Guangzhou · Haifa · Hamburg · Hamm · Hanau · Heilbronn · Helsinki ·
Hildesheim · Hiroshima · Hull · Innsbruck · Kaiserslautern · Kassel ·
Kobe · Königsberg · Kure · Liverpool · London · Lübeck · Mainz · Malta
· Manchester · Manila · Mannheim · Minsk · Mito · Munich · Nagaoka ·
Nagasaki · Nagoya · Nottingham · Naha · Nanjing · Naples · Narva ·
Nuremberg · Omuta · Osaka · Pforzheim · Ploiesti · Plymouth ·
Podgorica · Prague · Rabaul · Remscheid · Rome · Rothenburg ob der
Tauber · Rotterdam · Saarbrücken · Salzburg · Schaffhausen ·
Schwäbisch Hall · Schweinfurt · Sendai · Shanghai · Sheffield · Sofia
· Southampton · Stalingrad · Stettin · Stuttgart · Swansea · Taipei ·
Tallinn · Tel Aviv · Thessaloníki · Tokyo · Toyama · Treviso · Tsu
· Ujiyamada · Ulm · Vienna · Warsaw · Wesel · Wieluń · Wuppertal ·
Würzburg · Yokohama · Zadar · Zagreb


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebombing"
Categories: Aerial bombing | Aerial warfare strategy | Incendiary
weapons | Hazards | Air-dropped bombs | Firebombing
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles
with unsourced statements from March 2008
ut Wikipedia
Disclaimers

Mr butterfly's worldwide reputation of brutality, thievery, and
treason for hundreds of years

这百多年来, 梁启超和梁家到底教会了日本人什么, 留给了日本什么? 梁启超对中日关系的贡献到底是什么? The legacy of
Liang qichao in Japan for past hundred years.


Woman's role in war and racial conflict - Takako Nishizaki and
Japanese obsession with butterfly


After Japan and Black defeated Leung (aka Liang), Leung offered
"Heqin
policy" (princess and girls aka butterfly) to Muhammad Ali and Japan
in exchange of power, influence, peace treaty, protection, merit and
recognition. Japan copy from Leung and use the same tactics on
American after his unconditional surrender at the end of World War
II. Between 70-90, Leung (aka Liang) offered girls aka butterfly to
black and Muhammad Ali in order to counterbalance white and racism in
the west. These butterfly are considered as a substitution for white
woman in African community.


糊蝶夫人的百年声誉: 和亲也是搞国防 Madama_Butterfly & Heqin policy in Japan: The
secret weapon of Japan for hundred years:


Madama_Butterfly and Heqin policy in Japan: The secret weapon of
Japan
for hundred years: 糊蝶夫人的百年声誉: 和亲也是搞国防


Quotation from wikepedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madama_Butterfly
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9D%B4%E8%9D%B6%E5%A4%AB%E4%BA%BA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Saigon
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E8%B2%A2%E5%B0%8F%E5%A7%90
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-dressing
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%AE%E8%A3%9D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takako_Nishizaki
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=cross+dressing&fr=yfp-t-501&toggle=1...
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%B4%8E%E5%B4%87%E5%AD%90
http://search.yahoo.com/search/dir?ei=UTF-8&p=crossing+dressing&y=d&r...
http://search.yahoo.com/search;_ylt=A0oGklGB2wNK5GABym1XNyoA?p=prosti...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Rose
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mrliu918
2009-07-21 10:33:42 UTC
Permalink
Kuwaiti oil fires - How Iraq fight US firepower with fire? Histoy of
fire bombing

Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaiti_oil_fires
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebombing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_Tokyo_in_World_War_II
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombing_of_London_in_World_War_II

Histoy of fire bombing

edit] See also
Bombing of Hamburg in World War II
Bombing of Dresden in World War II
Bombing of London in World War II
Bombing of Coventry in World War II
Bombing of Tokyo in World War II
Bombing of Frampol in World War II
Bombing of Wieluń in World War II
Bombing of Warsaw in World War II
Aerial bombing of cities

Kuwaiti oil fires
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search

USAF aircraft fly over burning Kuwaiti oil wells

Aerial view of oil wells on fire

The oil fires caused a dramatic decrease in air quality, causing
respiratory problems for many Kuwaitis.
The Kuwaiti oil fires were a result of the scorched earth policy of
Iraqi military forces retreating from Kuwait in 1991 after conquering
the country but being driven out by Coalition military forces (see
Gulf War).
The resulting fires burned out of control because of the dangers of
sending in firefighting crews. Land mines had been placed in areas
around the oil wells, and a military cleaning of the areas was
necessary before the fires could be put out. Somewhere around 6
million barrels (950,000 m3) of oil were lost each day. Eventually,
privately contracted crews extinguished the fires, at a total cost of
US$1.5 billion to Kuwait.[1] By that time, however, the fires had
burned for months, causing widespread pollution.
The byproducts of the petroleum burn caused pollution to the soil and
air, and the oil fires have been linked in the popular imagination
with what was later called Gulf War Syndrome. Whether this syndrome
has been caused by the oil fires, by chemical attack, or other causes
has not been determined, and the longterm environmental effects of
the
fires have yet to be fully understood.
During Operation Desert Storm, Dr. S. Fred Singer debated Carl Sagan
on the impact of the Kuwaiti petroleum fires on the ABC News program
Nightline. Sagan said we know from the nuclear winter investigation
that the smoke would loft into the upper atmosphere and that he
believed the net effects would be very similar to the explosion of
the
Indonesian volcano Tambora in 1815, which resulted in the year 1816
being known as the Year Without a Summer, in massive agricultural
failures, in very serious human suffering and, in some cases,
starvation.
He predicted the same for south Asia, and perhaps for a significant
fraction of the northern hemisphere as well as a result. Singer, on
the other hand, said that calculations showed that the smoke would go
to an altitude of about 3,000 feet (910 m) and then be rained out
after about three to five days and thus the lifetime of the smoke
would be limited.[2]
In retrospect, we now know that smoke from the Kuwait Oil Fires
dominated the weather pattern throughout the Persian Gulf and
surrounding region during 1991, and that lower atmospheric wind blew
the smoke along the eastern half of the Arabian Peninsula, and cities
like Dhahran, Riyadh and Bahrain experienced days with smoke filled
skies and carbon fallout.[3]
The companies responsible for extinguishing the fires are Red Adair
Company (now sold off to Global Industries of Louisiana), Boots and
Coots (now Boots and Coots/IWC), Wild Well Control, Safety Boss, Cudd
Well/Pressure Control, Neal Adams Firefighters, and Kuwait Wild Well
Killers. All the wells were eventually fully extinguished and brought
back under control.
Contents
[hide]
1 Motives
2 Environmental impact


[edit] Motives
By the eve of the Iraqi invasion, Kuwait had set production quotas to
almost 1.9 million barrels per day (300,000 m³/d), which coincided
with a sharp drop in the price of oil. By the summer of 1990, Kuwaiti
overproduction had become a serious point of contention with Iraq.
Some analysts have speculated that one of Saddam Hussein's main
motivations in invading Kuwait was to punish the ruling al-Sabah
family in Kuwait for not stopping its policy of overproduction, as
well as his reasoning behind the destruction of said wells.[4]
[edit] Environmental impact
An oilfield on fire


A 2008 picture of the mummified remains of a bird, encrusted within
the top hard layer of a dry oil lake in the Kuwaiti desert.
Nearly 700 oil wells were set ablaze by the retreating Iraqi army and
the fires were not fully extinguished until November 6, 1991, eight
months after the end of the war. The fires consumed an estimated six
million barrels of oil daily.

[edit] See also
Environmental issues with war
[edit] References
^ Husain, T. (1995). Kuwaiti Oil Fires: Regional Environmental
Perspectives. Oxford: BPC Wheatons Ltd. pp. 68.
^ "FIRST ISRAELI SCUD FATALITIES OIL FIRES IN KUWAIT". Nightline
(ABC). 1991-01-22.
^ Patrick K. Dowling. "The Meteorological Effects of the Kuwait Oil
Fires". http://as.wm.edu/Abstracts/PatrickDowling.pdf.
^ a b "The Economic and Environmental Impact of the Gulf War on
Kuwait
and the Persian Gulf". The Trade & Environment Database. American
University. 2000-12-01. http://www.american.edu/TED/kuwait.htm.
Retrieved on 2007-02-14.
^ http://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/topstory/2003/0321kuwaitfire...
^ Heather MacLeod McClain (2001). "Environmental impact: Oil fires
and
spills leave hazardous legacy". CNN.
http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/2001/gulf.war/legacy/environment/index.html.
Retrieved on 2007-02-03.
[edit] External links
Fighting the Oil Well Fires
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuwaiti_oil_fires"
This page was last modified on 17 July 2009 at 13:05.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution/Share-Alike
License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details.
Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation,
Inc., a non-profit organization.
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About Wikipedia
Disclaimers

Fire Bombs in Iraq: Napalm By Any Other Name
Wednesday November 9th, 2005, by Iraq Analysis Group
NOTE FROM THE EDITOR: The following briefing regarding the use of the
incendiary weapon MK-77 was first published in March of 2005. It is
again presented due to current articles talking about the use of
incendiary devises by the US military.
Iraq Analysis Group (March 2005)
Summary
This briefing examines the continuing use of incendiary weapons
(“napalm”) by the US military in Iraq. While the UK government has
attempted to downplay or deny the use of incendiaries in Iraq, US
officials have been forced to admit using the MK-77 incendiary, a
modern form of napalm. The UK is party to an international convention
banning such weapons where they may cause harm to civilians. In Iraq,
UK forces are part of a coalition which does not adhere to
internationally agreed standards of warfare.


1. Napalm past
A fire bomb is a thin-skinned container of fuel gel. It ignites on
impact, spreading the burning gel over a wide area. The composition of
the fuel gel has evolved over the years:
World War II: gasoline plus naphthenic and palmitic acids Vietnam &
Korea: gasoline, benzene and polystyrene Iraq (MK-77 Mod 5): kerosene-
based jet fuel and polystyrene
In the past, incendiaries were used most notoriously in the 1945 fire-
bombing of Dresden, and by the US in Vietnam. The 1972 photograph of
the child Kim Phuc running from her napalmed village with her naked
body burning was a defining moment in worldwide opposition to the
Vietnam War.
Napalm has also been used in Iraq in the past. The Ba’ath regime of
Saddam Hussein used it during the 1991 uprising. In 1992 Human Rights
Watch reported:
Refugees alleged that Iraqi helicopters dropped a variety of ordnance
on civilians, including napalm and phosphorus bombs, chemical agents
and sulfuric acid. Representatives of human rights and humanitarian
organizations who saw refugees with burn injuries or photographs of
such injuries were unable to confirm the source of the burns, although
doctors who examined injured Iraqis said that some of the wounds were
consistent with the use of napalm. [1]
2. Napalm present
The US military has in its current arsenal a modern form of napalm.
Known as the MK-77 Mod 5, the bombs are dropped from aircraft and
ignite on impact. They contain a lethal mixture of aircraft fuel and
polystyrene, which forms a sticky, flammable gel. As it burns, the gel
sticks to structures and to the bodies of its victims. The light
aluminium containers lack stabilising fins, making them far from
precision weapons.
The MK-77 is the only incendiary now in use by the US military. It is
an evolution of the napalm bombs M-47 and M-74 that were used in
Vietnam and Korea. In the new weapon, the flammable gel is made up of
kerosene-based jet fuel and polystyrene. The MK-77 bomb reportedly
also contains an oxidizing agent. This makes it even more difficult to
put out once ignited.
While the composition of the weapons has evolved, the targets remain
the same. Incendiaries are typically used against dug-in troops,
supply installations, wooden structures, and land convoys.
Use of incendiaries is restricted by the 1980 UN Convention on
’Weapons Which May Be Deemed To Be Excessively Injurious Or To Have
Indiscriminate Effects’. [2] The United Kingdom has fully ratified
this convention and must abide by it and its additional protocols.
More than 80 other countries have done the same.
"Most of the world understands that napalm and incendiaries are a
horrible, horrible weapon," said Robert Musil, director of the
organisation Physicians for Social Responsibility. "It takes up an
awful lot of medical resources. It creates horrible wounds." [3]
However, although the United States has ratified the convention, it
has not signed up to the protocol on incendiary weapons.
3. Firebombs in Iraq
Incendiary weapons have been issued to US forces in Iraq, apparently
mainly Marine Corps aviation wings. Incendiaries were used against
Iraqi troops during the 2003 invasion, and there is growing evidence
that use continues, including in Fallujah.
For example, two embedded reporters (from the Sydney Morning Herald
and CNN) witnessed a firebomb attack on an Iraqi observation post at
Safwan Hill, overlooking the Kuwaiti border, on 21 March 2003:
Marine Cobra helicopter gunships firing Hellfire missiles swept in low
from the south. Then the marine howitzers, with a range of 30
kilometres, opened a sustained barrage over the next eight hours. They
were supported by US Navy aircraft which dropped 40,000 pounds of
explosives and napalm, a US officer told the Herald.
Safwan Hill went up in a huge fireball and the Iraqi observation post
was obliterated. "I pity anybody who’s in there," a marine sergeant
said. "We told them to surrender." [4]
During and immediately after the invasion, US officials denied claims
that napalm weapons were being deployed. [5] However, as military
personnel and journalists in Iraq quickly presented evidence of their
use, by August 2003 Pentagon spokesmen were forced to admit that MK-77
firebombs had been dropped. Past denials were justified on the grounds
that questioners had used the term ’napalm’ instead of ’firebombs’ or
’MK-77s’. The US claims to have destroyed all its stocks of ’napalm’
and argues that the MK-77 cannot be included in this term. However,
the Pentagon admits that the MK-77 is an incendiary with a function
’remarkably similar’ to that of napalm. [6]
In fact, the US military itself refers to the new-generation MK-77 as
’napalm’. The term is even used in official documents such as Defend
America, the monthly US Department of Defense publication describing
the progress of the ’war on terror’. In February 2003 the publication
proudly described preparations for the coming war, detailing the build-
up of weapons in Kuwait:
Everything from hand grenades to 2,000-pound bombs and napalm are
shipped, ready for use whenever 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing needs them.
[7]
Military personnel routinely refer to MK-77 incendiaries as ’napalm’:
’We napalmed both those [bridge] approaches’, said Colonel Alles,
commander of Marine Air Group 11. ’Unfortunately, there were people
there because you could see them in the [cockpit] video. They were
Iraqi soldiers there. It’s no great way to die’. He added, ’The
generals love napalm. It has a big psychological effect.’ [8]
4. Recent use of incendiaries: Firebombing Fallujah
In November 2004 US forces launched a massive attack on the city of
Fallujah. Much of the city was destroyed and tens of thousands of
residents fled as refugees.
Reports have emerged of burnt and melted bodies in the city,
consistent with the use of napalm or the equally controversial weapon
white phosphorus (also known as ’Willy Pete’)
Residents who survived the attack reported seeing incendiary bombs
used in the city. Abu Sabah, who lived in the Julan district of
Fallujah which witnessed some of the heaviest attacks, said:
"They used these weird bombs that put up smoke like a mushroom
cloud... then small pieces fall from the air with long tails of smoke
behind them."
He said that pieces of these strange bombs explode into large fires
that burn the skin even when water is thrown on the burns. [9]
"Usually we keep the gloves on," said Army Capt. Erik Krivda, of
Gaithersburg, Md., the senior officer in charge of the 1st Infantry
Division’s Task Force 2-2 tactical operations command center. "For
this operation, we took the gloves off."
Some artillery guns fired white phosphorous rounds that create a
screen of fire that cannot be extinguished with water. Insurgents
reported being attacked with a substance that melted their skin, a
reaction consistent with white phosphorous burns.
Kamal Hadeethi, a physician at a regional hospital, said, "The corpses
of the mujahedeen which we received were burned, and some corpses were
melted." [10]
5. International Law and UK Denials
Protocol III of the 1980 UN convention on ’Weapons Which May Be Deemed
To Be Excessively Injurious Or To Have Indiscriminate Effects’ states
that:
It is prohibited in all circumstances to make any military objective
located within a concentration of civilians the object of attack by
air-delivered incendiary weapons.
’A concentration of civilians’ is defined as including ’inhabited
parts of cities’, such as Fallujah. The United Kingdom has signed up
to this Protocol.
On 6 December 2004 Alice Mahon MP received an answer to a
Parliamentary Question to Armed Forces Minister Adam Ingram on
Coalition use of napalm-type weapons. Ingram denied that napalm had
been used in Iraq at any time:
Alice Mahon MP: To ask the Secretary of State for Defence whether
napalm or a similar substance has been used by the Coalition in Iraq
(a) during and (b) since the war. Adam Ingram MP: No napalm has been
used by Coalition forces in Iraq either during the war-fighting phase
or since. [11]
Ingram’s partial answer relies on a distinction between previous
incendiary weapons known as napalm, and the new MK-77. This is a
distinction which the US military, which uses the weapons, does not
make.
Conclusion
UK troops are working in coalition with a military that is using
napalm weapons in all but name. During the assault on Fallujah, UK
soldiers were placed under the command of US forces, despite the UK
being party to a UN Convention restricting the use of incendiaries and
other inhumane weapons.
While the UK has done much to further other parts of the convention,
including pushing for a total ban on anti-personnel mines, in this
instance the UK government is condoning the actions of its coalition
partner, even though they step well outside internationally agreed
standards.
This briefing for the Iraq Analysis Group was prepared by Alison
Klevnas, Per Klevnas, Rachel Laurence, Mike Lewis and Jonathan
Stevenson. The Iraq Analysis Group was set up in 2004 by former
members of the Campaign Against Sanctions on Iraq. Based in the UK,
its website is at www.iraqanalysis.org.
Footnotes
[1] Endless Torment: The 1991 Uprising in Iraq And Its Aftermath,
Human Rights Watch, June 1992.
[2] UN Convention On Prohibitions Or Restrictions On The Use Of
Certain Conventional Weapons Which May Be Deemed To Be Excessively
Injurious Or To Have Indiscriminate Effects And Protocols (1980). The
full text is at www.icrc.org. State signatories are at www.icrc.org.
[3] ’US admits it used napalm bombs in Iraq’, The Independent, 10
August 2003.
[4] ’Dead bodies are everywhere’, Sydney Morning Herald, 22 March
2003.
[5] ’Dead bodies are everywhere’, Sydney Morning Herald, 22 March
2003.
[6] ’Officials confirm dropping firebombs on Iraqi troops’, San Diego
Union Tribune, 5 August 2003.
[7] ’Sailors Offload Ammo For U.S. Marines’, Defend America, US Dept
of Defense, 2 February 2003. See also www.usmc.mil.
[8] ’Officials confirm dropping firebombs on Iraqi troops’, San Diego
Union Tribune, 5 August 2003.
[9] ’U.S. uses napalm gas in Fallujah - Witnesses’, Al-Jazeera.com, 28
November 2004, and ’Fallujah Napalmed’, Sunday Mirror, 28 November
2004.
[10] ’U.S. drives into heart of Fallujah’, San Francisco Chronicle, 10
November 2004.
[11] Hansard, 6 December 2004. See also www.theyworkforyou.com.


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Bombing of London in World War II


Firebombing
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search


U.S forces drop Napalm on Viet Cong positions in 1965.


A Nazi German World War II incendiary bomb remnant
Firebombing is a bombing technique designed to damage a target,
generally an urban area, through the use of fire, caused by
incendiary
devices, rather than from the blast effect of large bombs.
The tactic originated during World War II with the use of strategic
bombing to destroy the ability of the enemy to wage war. London,
Coventry and many other British cities were firebombed during the
Blitz. Many German cities, such as Hamburg, were extensively
firebombed starting in 1942. Almost all of the Japanese cities were
firebombed during the last six months of World War II.
This technique makes use of small incendiary bombs (possibly
delivered
by a cluster bomb such as the Molotov bread basket[1]). If a fire
catches, it could spread, taking in adjacent buildings that would
have
been largely unaffected by a high explosive bomb. This is a more
effective use of the payload that a bomber could carry.
The use of incendiaries alone does not generally start uncontrollable
fires where the targets are roofed with nonflammable materials such
as
tiles or slates. The use of a mixture of bombers carrying high
explosive bombs, such as the British blockbuster bombs, which blew
out
windows and roofs and exposed the interior of buildings to the
incendiary bombs, are much more effective. Alternatively, a
preliminary bombing with conventional bombs can be followed by
subsequent attacks by incendiary carrying bombers.
Contents
[hide]
1 Tactics
2 Popular culture
3 See also
4 Notes
5 References


[edit] Tactics
See also: Firestorm
Early in World War II many British cities were firebombed. Two
particularly notable raids were the Coventry Blitz on 14 November
1940, and the blitz on London on the night of 29 December/30 December
1940, which was the most destructive raid on London during the war
with much of the destruction caused by fires started by incendiary
bombs. During the Coventry Blitz the Germans pioneered several
innovations which were to influence all future strategic bomber raids
during the war.[2] These were: The use of pathfinder aircraft with
electronic aids to navigate, to mark the targets before the main
bomber raid; The use of high explosive bombs and air-mines
(blockbuster bombs) coupled with thousands of incendiary bombs
intended to set the city ablaze. The first wave of follow-up bombers
dropped high explosive bombs, the intent of which was knock out the
utilities (the water supply, electricity network and gas mains), and
to crater the road - making it difficult for the fire engines to
reach
fires started by the follow-up waves of bombers. The follow-up waves
dropped a combination of high explosive and incendiary bombs. There
were two types of incendiary bombs: those made with magnesium and
iron
powders, and those made of petroleum. The high-explosive bombs and
the
larger air-mines were not only designed to hamper the Coventry fire
brigade, they were also intended to damage roofs, making it easier
for
the incendiary bombs to fall into buildings and ignite them. As Sir
Arthur Harris, commander of the RAF Bomber Command, wrote after the
war:

In its attacks on Japan the Army Air Force eventually abandoned its
policy of high-altitude precision bombing, and it used a mix of
incendiaries and high explosives to burn Japanese cities to the
ground. These tactics were used to devastating effect with many urban
areas burned out. The first raid using low-flying B-29 Superfortress
bombers carrying incendiary bombs to drop on Tokyo was on the night
of
24-25 February 1945 when 174 B-29s destroyed around fifty square mile
(150 km²) of the city. Changing their tactics to expand the coverage
and increase the damage, 279 B-29s raided on the night of 9-10 March,
dropping around 1,700 tons of bombs. Approximately 16 square miles
(41
km²) of the city were destroyed and some 100,000 people are estimated
to have died in the resulting firestorm, more than the immediate
deaths of either the Hiroshima or Nagasaki, Japan atomic bombings.[7]
Another example is the Bombing of Kobe, Japan on 17 March 1945, 331
B-29 bombers launched a firebombing attack against the city. Of the
city's residents, 80,841 were confirmed to have been killed in the
resulting firestorms, which destroyed an area of three square miles
and included 21% of Kobe's urban area. At the time, the city covered
an area of 14 square miles (36 km²). More than 650,000 people had
their homes destroyed, and the homes of another one million people
were damaged.[citation needed]
[edit] Popular culture
The Japanese animated film Grave of the Fireflies follows events
after
the firebombing of Kobe, Japan.
Kurt Vonnegut's science fiction novel Slaughterhouse-Five is
partially
based on his personal experience of the Bombing of Dresden, Germany,
firestorm.
In the movie 28 Weeks Later, firebombing was used to exterminate the
population infected with the 'Rage Virus'.
The novel Extremely Loud and Incredibly Close by Jonathan Safran Foer
contains narrative threads dealing with the Bombing of Dresden.
[edit] See also

Bombing of Hamburg in World War II
Bombing of Dresden in World War II
Bombing of London in World War II
Bombing of Coventry in World War II
Bombing of Tokyo in World War II
Bombing of Frampol in World War II
Bombing of Wieluń in World War II
Bombing of Warsaw in World War II
Aerial bombing of cities
Terror bombing
[edit] Notes
^ *Langdon Davies, John (June 1940). "The Lessons of Finland".
Picture
Post.
^ Taylor, Fredrick; Dresden Tuesday 13 February 1945, Pub Bloomsbury
(First Pub 2004, Paper Back 2005). ISBN 0-7475-7084-1. Page 118
^ a b Arthur Harris. Bomber Offensive, (First edition Collins 1947),
Pen & Sword military classics 2005; ISBN 1-84415-210-3. Page 83
^ Davis p.504
^ Taylor p. 366. Taylor compares this 40% mix with the raid on Berlin
on February 3rd where the ratio was 10% incendiaries
^ Davis pp. 425,504
^ Freeman Dyson. Part I: A Failure of Intelligence. Technology
Review,
November 1, 2006, MIT
[edit] References
Davis, Richard G. Bombing the European Axis Powers. A Historical
Digest of the Combined Bomber Offensive 1939–1945 PDF. Alabama: Air
University Press, 2006
Harris, Arthur. Bomber Offensive, (First edition Collins 1947), Pen &
Sword military classics 2005; ISBN 1-84415-210-3.
Taylor, Fredrick; Dresden Tuesday 13 February 1945, Pub Bloomsbury
(First Pub 2004, Paper Back 2005). ISBN 0-7475-7084-1.
[hide] v • d • eWorld War II city bombing


Area bombardment · Aerial bombing of cities · Terror bombing · V-
Weapons


Aomori · Augsburg · Baedeker Raids · Bahrain · Barrow-in-Furness ·
Belfast · Belgrade · Berlin · Birmingham · Braunschweig · Bremen ·
Breslau · Brighton · Bristol · Bucharest · Budapest · Caen · Calcutta
· Cardiff · Chemnitz · Chişinău · Chongqing · Clydebank · Cologne ·
Coventry · Danzig · Darmstadt · Darwin · Dresden · Dublin ·
Duisburg · Düsseldorf · Essen · Frampol · Frankfurt · Frascati ·
Fukui
· Fukuoka · Fukuyama · Gelsenkirchen · Gibraltar · Gifu · Greenock ·
Guangzhou · Haifa · Hamburg · Hamm · Hanau · Heilbronn · Helsinki ·
Hildesheim · Hiroshima · Hull · Innsbruck · Kaiserslautern · Kassel
·
Kobe · Königsberg · Kure · Liverpool · London · Lübeck · Mainz ·
Malta
· Manchester · Manila · Mannheim · Minsk · Mito · Munich · Nagaoka ·
Nagasaki · Nagoya · Nottingham · Naha · Nanjing · Naples · Narva ·
Nuremberg · Omuta · Osaka · Pforzheim · Ploiesti · Plymouth ·
Podgorica · Prague · Rabaul · Remscheid · Rome · Rothenburg ob der
Tauber · Rotterdam · Saarbrücken · Salzburg · Schaffhausen ·
Schwäbisch Hall · Schweinfurt · Sendai · Shanghai · Sheffield · Sofia
· Southampton · Stalingrad · Stettin · Stuttgart · Swansea · Taipei ·
Tallinn · Tel Aviv · Thessaloníki · Tokyo · Toyama · Treviso · Tsu
· Ujiyamada · Ulm · Vienna · Warsaw · Wesel · Wieluń · Wuppertal ·
Würzburg · Yokohama · Zadar · Zagreb


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firebombing"
Categories: Aerial bombing | Aerial warfare strategy | Incendiary
weapons | Hazards | Air-dropped bombs | Firebombing
Hidden categories: All articles with unsourced statements | Articles
with unsourced statements from March 2008
ut Wikipedia
Disclaimers


Mr butterfly's worldwide reputation of brutality, thievery, and
treason for hundreds of years


这百多年来, 梁启超和梁家到底教会了日本人什么, 留给了日本什么? 梁启超对中日关系的贡献到底是什么? The legacy of
Liang qichao in Japan for past hundred years.


Woman's role in war and racial conflict - Takako Nishizaki and
Japanese obsession with butterfly


After Japan and Black defeated Leung (aka Liang), Leung offered
"Heqin
policy" (princess and girls aka butterfly) to Muhammad Ali and Japan
in exchange of power, influence, peace treaty, protection, merit and
recognition. Japan copy from Leung and use the same tactics on
American after his unconditional surrender at the end of World War
II. Between 70-90, Leung (aka Liang) offered girls aka butterfly to
black and Muhammad Ali in order to counterbalance white and racism in
the west. These butterfly are considered as a substitution for white
woman in African community.


糊蝶夫人的百年声誉: 和亲也是搞国防 Madama_Butterfly & Heqin policy in Japan: The
secret weapon of Japan for hundred years:


Madama_Butterfly and Heqin policy in Japan: The secret weapon of
Japan
for hundred years: 糊蝶夫人的百年声誉: 和亲也是搞国防


Quotation from wikepedia


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madama_Butterfly
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%9D%B4%E8%9D%B6%E5%A4%AB%E4%BA%BA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss_Saigon
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E8%B2%A2%E5%B0%8F%E5%A7%90
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross-dressing
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%AE%E8%A3%9D
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Takako_Nishizaki
http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=cross+dressing&fr=yfp-t-501&toggle=1...
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E5%B4%8E%E5%B4%87%E5%AD%90
http://search.yahoo.com/search/dir?ei=UTF-8&p=crossing+dressing&y=d&r...
http://search.yahoo.com/search;_ylt=A0oGklGB2wNK5GABym1XNyoA?p=prosti...
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokyo_Rose
http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%B1%E4%BA%AC%E7%8E%AB%E7%91%B0
mrliu918
2009-07-21 10:57:54 UTC
Permalink
Geopolitics of China 中国二十世纪周边环境
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Empire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_empire
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam
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http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam

Best Answer - Chosen by Asker
Ignore most of the answers on here; what they have given you is the
total number of military personnel, which include reserves,
paramilitary, navy, air force etc. You asked about the world’s 10
largest Armies, which are (with total ACTIVE soldiers in brackets);

China (1.6 million)
India (1.3 million)
North Korea (1 million)
Pakistan (619,000)
South Korea (560,000)
Turkey (550,000)
United States (519,000)
Vietnam (450,000)
Russia (395,000)
Iran (350,000)

The UK by contrast has around 102,000 active troops.

However to give you some added information.

The top 10 biggest spenders on there military are;

United States ($547 billion)
United Kingdom ($70 billion)
France ($65 billion)
Germany ($58 billion)
Japan ($49 billion)
China ($45 billion)
Italy ($34 billion)
Russia ($32 billion)
Saudi Arabia ($31 billion)
South Korea ($26 billion)

The United States has the worlds largest Navy, the UK has the worlds
second largest Navy by gross tonnage, closely followed by Russia,
China and France respectively.

The UK is considered second only to the United States in our ability
to project power over sustained periods.

The UK has the second largest number of Aircraft carrier's in the
world after the US - The world has 22 carriers (11 US, 3 UK, 2 Italy
and 1 each for France, India, Russia, Spain, Brazil Thailand)

The UK is 1 of only 5 nations to operate Nuclear Powered submarines
(US, UK, France, Russia and China) and has more than France and China
and has more operation than all but the US.

Russian Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The subject of this article was previously also known as Russia. For
other uses, see Russia (disambiguation).
Pоссийская Империя (ru-Cyrl)
Rossiyskaya Imperiya (translit)
The Russian Empire

1721–1917 →



Flag of Russian Empire Coat of Arms

Motto
Съ нами Богъ!
(God is with us!)
Anthem
"God Save The Tsar!"
The Russian Empire in 1866 [1]
Capital Saint Petersburg (1721–28)
Moscow (1728–30)
Saint Petersburg/Petrograd (1730–1918)
Language(s) Official: Russian
Recognised regional languages: Finnish, Swedish, Polish
Religion State Church: Russian Orthodox
Minorities:Catholics, Protestants, Jews, Old Believers, Muslims
Government Absolute Monarchy
Emperor
- 1721–1725 Peter I
- 1894–1917 Nicholas II
Legislature State Duma
History
- Accession of Peter I May 7, 1682 NS,
April 27, 1682 OS¹
- Empire proclaimed October 22, 1721 NS,
October 11, 1721 OS 1721
- Decembrist revolt December 26, 1825 NS,
December 14, 1825 OS
- Abolition of feudalism March 3, 1861 NS,
February 19, 1861 OS
- Revolution of 1905 January–December 1905
- Constitution April 23, 1906
- February Revolution March 15, 1917 NS,
March 2, 1917 OS 1917
- October Revolution November 7, 1917 NS,
October 25, 1917 OS
Area
- 1916 21,799,825 km² (8,416,959 sq mi)
Population
- 1916 est. 181,537,800
Density 8.3 /km² (21.6 /sq mi)
Currency Ruble
1: Russia continued to use the Julian calendar until after the
collapse of the empire; see Old Style and New Style dates.


The "coat of arms flag", erroneously called "Romanov dynastic flag":
the official national flag of the Russian Empire from 1858 to 1883

The Romanov double-headed eagle standard, used as the flag of the
Russian empire until 1858

The capital of Imperial Russia was Saint Petersburg.

An episode from the Russian-French wars.
The Russian Empire (Pre-reform Russian: Россійская Имперія, Modern
Russian: Российская Империя, translit: Rossiyskaya Imperiya) was a
state that existed from 1721 until the Russian Revolution of 1917. It
was the successor to the Tsardom of Russia, and the predecessor of the
Soviet Union. It was the second largest contiguous empire the world
had seen, surpassed only by the Mongol Empire. At one point in 1866,
it stretched from eastern Europe, across Asia, and into North America.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was the largest country
in the world, extending from the Arctic Ocean to the north to the
Black Sea on the south, from the Baltic Sea on the west to the Pacific
Ocean on the east. Across this vast realm were scattered the Emperor's
176.4 million subjects, the third largest population of the world at
the time, after Qing China and British India, but still represented a
great disparity in economic, ethnic, and religious positions. Its
government, ruled by the Emperor, was one of the last absolute
monarchies left in Europe. Prior to the outbreak of World War I in
August 1914 Russia was one of the five major Great Powers of Europe.
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 The eighteenth century
1.2 First half of the nineteenth century
1.3 Second half of the nineteenth century
1.4 Early twentieth century
2 Territory
2.1 Boundaries
2.2 Geography
2.3 Territory development
2.4 Imperial external territories
3 Government and administration
3.1 The emperor
3.2 Imperial Council
3.3 The Duma and electoral system
3.4 Council of Ministers
3.5 Most Holy Synod
3.6 Senate
3.7 Provincial administration
4 Judicial system
5 Local administration
5.1 Municipal dumas
5.2 Baltic provinces
6 Religions
7 Society
7.1 Serfdom
7.2 Peasants
7.3 Landowners
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References and further reading
11 External links





India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bharat" redirects here. For other uses, see Bharat (disambiguation).
"ROI" redirects here. For other uses, see ROI (disambiguation).
This article is about Republic of India. For other uses, see India
(disambiguation).
Republic of India
भारत गणराज्य*
Bhārat Gaṇarājya

Flag National Emblem

Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)
सत्यमेव जयते (Devanāgarī)
"Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Anthem: Jana Gana Mana
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people[2]

National Song[4]
Vande Mataram
I bow to thee, Mother[3]

Capital New Delhi
‡) 28°34′N 77°12′E / 28.567°N 77.2°E / 28.567; 77.2
Largest city Mumbai
Official languages Hindi, English[show]
Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the Union
[5] and English the "subsidiary official language".[6]
Constitutionally recognised
languages 8th Schedule:[show]
Assamese
Bengali
Bodo
Dogri
Gujarati
Hindi
Kannada
Kashmiri
Konkani
Maithili
Malayalam
Manipuri
Marathi
Nepali
Oriya
Punjabi
Sanskrit
Santali
Sindhi
Tamil
Telugu
Urdu[7]
Demonym Indian
Government Federal republic
Parliamentary democracy[8]
- President Pratibha Patil
- Vice-President of India Hamid Ansari
- Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
- Chief Justice K. G. Balakrishnan
Legislature Sansad
- Upper House Rajya Sabha
- Lower House Lok Sabha
Independence from United Kingdom
- Declared 15 August 1947
- Republic 26 January 1950
Area
- Total 3,287,240‡ km2 (7th)
1,269,210 sq mi
- Water (%) 9.56
Population
- 2008 estimate 1,147,995,904[9] (2nd)
- 2001 census 1,028,610,328[10]
- Density 349/km2 (32nd)
904/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $3.288 trillion[11]
- Per capita $2,762[11]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $1.209 trillion[11]
- Per capita $1,016[11]
Gini (2004) 36.8[12]
HDI (2008) 0.609 (medium) (132)
Currency Indian rupee (₨) (INR)
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+5:30)
Drives on the left
Internet TLD .in
Calling code 91
Non-numbered Footnotes:[show]
* Bharat Ganarajya, that is, the Republic of India in Hindi,[8]
written in the Devanāgarī script. See also other official names
‡ This is the figure as per the United Nations though the Indian
government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometres.[13]

India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat
Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South
Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the
second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the
world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on
the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of
7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi).[14] It is bordered by Pakistan to the
west;[15] People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the
north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the
vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian
Ocean.
Home to the Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade
routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with
its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[16]
Four major religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism
originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and
Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's
diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company
from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom
from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in
1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread
nonviolent resistance.
India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union
territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the
world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the
fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms since 1991 have
transformed it into one of the fastest growing economies;[17] however,
it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[18] illiteracy, and
malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society,
India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of
protected habitats.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Government
3.1 Administrative divisions
4 Politics
5 Foreign relations and military
6 Geography
7 Flora and fauna
8 Economy
9 Demographics
10 Culture
10.1 Sports
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links





British Empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
For a comprehensive list of the territories that formed the British
Empire, see Evolution of the British Empire.
British Empire



The areas of the world that at one time were part of the British
Empire. Current British overseas territories are underlined in red.

The British Empire comprised the dominions, colonies, protectorates,
mandates, and other territories ruled or administered by the United
Kingdom (UK), that had originated with the overseas colonies and
trading posts established by England in the late 16th and early 17th
centuries. At its height it was the largest empire in history and, for
over a century, was the foremost global power. By 1922, the British
Empire held sway over a population of about 458 million people, one-
quarter of the world's population,[1] and covered more than 13,000,000
square miles (33,670,000 km²): approximately a quarter of the Earth's
total land area.[2] As a result, its political, linguistic and
cultural legacy is widespread. At the peak of its power, it was often
said that "the sun never sets on the British Empire" because its span
across the globe ensured that the sun was always shining on at least
one of its numerous territories.
During the Age of Discovery in the 15th and 16th centuries, Spain and
Portugal pioneered European exploration of the globe and in the
process established large overseas empires. Envious of the great
wealth these empires bestowed, England, France and the Netherlands
began to establish colonies and trade networks of their own in the
Americas and Asia. A series of wars in the 17th and 18th centuries
with the Netherlands and France left England (Britain, following the
1707 Act of Union with Scotland) the dominant colonial power in North
America and India. However, the loss of the Thirteen Colonies in North
America in 1783 after a war of independence was a blow to Britain,
depriving it of its most populous colonies. Despite this setback,
British attention soon turned towards Africa, Asia and the Pacific.
Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a
century of effectively unchallenged dominance, and expanded its
imperial holdings across the globe. Increasing degrees of autonomy
were granted to its white settler colonies, some of which were
reclassified as dominions.
The growth of Germany and the United States eroded Britain's economic
lead by the end of the 19th century. Subsequent military and economic
tensions between Britain and Germany were major causes of the First
World War, for which Britain leaned heavily upon its Empire. The
conflict placed enormous financial strain on Britain, and although the
Empire achieved its largest territorial extent immediately after the
war, it was no longer a peerless industrial or military power. Despite
emerging victorious, the Second World War saw Britain's colonies in
South-East Asia occupied by Japan, which damaged British prestige and
accelerated the decline of the Empire. Within two years of the end of
the war, Britain granted independence to its most populous and
valuable colony, India.
During the remainder of the 20th century, most of the territories of
the Empire became independent as part of a larger global
decolonisation movement by the European powers, ending with the return
of Hong Kong to the People's Republic of China in 1997. After
independence, many former British colonies joined the Commonwealth of
Nations, a free association of independent states. Fourteen
territories remain under British sovereignty, the British overseas
territories.
Contents
[hide]
1 Origins (1497–1583)
1.1 Ireland
2 "First British Empire" (1583–1783)
2.1 Americas, Africa and the slave trade
2.2 Rivalry with the Netherlands in Asia
2.3 Global struggles with France
3 Rise of the "Second British Empire" (1783–1815)
3.1 Company rule in India
3.2 Loss of the Thirteen American Colonies
3.3 Exploration of the Pacific
3.4 War with Napoleonic France
3.5 Abolition of slavery
4 Britain's imperial century (1815–1914)
4.1 East India Company in Asia
4.2 Rivalry with Russia
4.3 Cape to Cairo
4.4 Changing status of the white colonies
5 World wars (1914–1945)
5.1 First World War
5.2 Inter-war period
5.3 Second World War
6 Decolonisation and decline (1945–1997)
6.1 Initial disengagement
6.2 Suez and its aftermath
6.3 Wind of change
6.4 End of empire
7 Legacy
8 See also
9 Notes
10 References
11 External links






United States
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
This article is about the United States of America. For other uses of
terms redirecting here, see US (disambiguation), USA (disambiguation),
and United States (disambiguation).
United States of America

Flag Great Seal

Motto: In God We Trust (official)
E Pluribus Unum (Latin; traditional)
(Out of Many, One)
Anthem: "The Star-Spangled Banner"


Capital Washington, D.C.
38°53′N 77°01′W / 38.883°N 77.017°W / 38.883; -77.017
Largest city New York City
Official languages None at federal level1
National language English (de facto)2
Demonym American
Government Federal constitutional republic
- President Barack Obama (D)
- Vice President Joe Biden (D)
- Speaker of the House Nancy Pelosi (D)
- Chief Justice John Roberts
Independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain
- Declared July 4, 1776
- Recognized September 3, 1783
- Current constitution June 21, 1788
Area
- Total 9,826,630 km2 [1](3rd/4th3)
3,794,066 sq mi
- Water (%) 6.76
Population
- 2009 estimate 306,955,000[2] (3rd4)
- 2000 census 281,421,906[3]
- Density 31/km2 (180th)
80/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $14.264 trillion[4] (1st)
- Per capita $46,859[4] (6th)
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $14.264 trillion[4] (1st)
- Per capita $46,859[4] (17th)
Gini (2007) 46.3[5]
HDI (2006) ▬ 0.950[6] (high) (15th)
Currency United States dollar ($) (USD)
Time zone (UTC-5 to -10)
- Summer (DST) (UTC-4 to -10)
Drives on the Right
Internet TLD .us .gov .mil .edu
Calling code +1
1 English is the official language of at least 28 states—some sources
give a higher figure, based on differing definitions of "official".[7]
English and Hawaiian are both official languages in the state of
Hawaii.
2 English is the de facto language of American government and the sole
language spoken at home by 81% of Americans age five and older.
Spanish is the second most commonly spoken language.
3 Whether the United States or the People's Republic of China is
larger is disputed. The figure given is from the U.S. Central
Intelligence Agency's World Factbook. Other sources give smaller
figures. All authoritative calculations of the country's size include
only the 50 states and the District of Columbia, not the territories.
4 The population estimate includes people whose usual residence is in
the fifty states and the District of Columbia, including noncitizens.
It does not include either those living in the territories, amounting
to more than 4 million U.S. citizens (most in Puerto Rico), or U.S.
citizens living outside the United States.

The United States of America (commonly referred to as the United
States, the U.S., the USA, or America) is a federal constitutional
republic comprising fifty states and a federal district. The country
is situated mostly in central North America, where its 48 contiguous
states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the
Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and
Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the
continent, with Canada to its east and Russia to the west across the
Bering Strait. The state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-
Pacific. The country also possesses several territories, or insular
areas, in the Caribbean and Pacific.
At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km2) and with about 306
million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest
country by total area, and third largest by land area and by
population. The United States is one of the world's most ethnically
diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale
immigration from many countries.[8] The U.S. economy is the largest
national economy in the world, with an estimated 2008 gross domestic
product (GDP) of US $14.3 trillion (23% of the world total based on
nominal GDP and almost 21% at purchasing power parity).[4][9]
The nation was founded by thirteen colonies of Great Britain located
along the Atlantic seaboard. On July 4, 1776, they issued the
Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed their independence from
Great Britain and their formation of a cooperative union. The
rebellious states defeated Great Britain in the American Revolutionary
War, the first successful colonial war of independence.[10] The
Philadelphia Convention adopted the current United States Constitution
on September 17, 1787; its ratification the following year made the
states part of a single republic with a strong central government. The
Bill of Rights, comprising ten constitutional amendments guaranteeing
many fundamental civil rights and freedoms, was ratified in 1791.
In the 19th century, the United States acquired land from France,
Spain, the United Kingdom, Mexico, and Russia, and annexed the
Republic of Texas and the Republic of Hawaii. Disputes between the
agrarian South and industrial North over states' rights and the
expansion of the institution of slavery provoked the American Civil
War of the 1860s. The North's victory prevented a permanent split of
the country and led to the end of legal slavery in the United States.
By the 1870s, the national economy was the world's largest.[11] The
Spanish–American War and World War I confirmed the country's status as
a military power. In 1945, the United States emerged from World War II
as the first country with nuclear weapons, a permanent member of the
United Nations Security Council, and a founding member of NATO. The
end of the Cold War and the dissolution of the Soviet Union left the
United States as the sole superpower. The country accounts for
approximately 50% of global military spending and is a leading
economic, political, and cultural force in the world.[12]
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 Geography and environment
3 History
3.1 Native Americans and European settlers
3.2 Independence and expansion
3.3 Civil War and industrialization
3.4 World War I, Great Depression, and World War II
3.5 Cold War and protest politics
3.6 Contemporary era
4 Government and elections
4.1 Parties, ideology, and politics
5 Political divisions
6 Foreign relations and military
7 Economy
7.1 Income and human development
7.2 Science and technology
7.3 Transportation
7.4 Energy
8 Demographics
8.1 Language
8.2 Religion
8.3 Education
8.4 Health
8.5 Crime and law enforcement
9 Culture
9.1 Popular media
9.2 Literature, philosophy, and the arts
9.3 Food
9.4 Sports
10 See also
11 References
12 External links




India
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Bharat" redirects here. For other uses, see Bharat (disambiguation).
"ROI" redirects here. For other uses, see ROI (disambiguation).
This article is about Republic of India. For other uses, see India
(disambiguation).
Republic of India
भारत गणराज्य*
Bhārat Gaṇarājya

Flag National Emblem

Motto: "Satyameva Jayate" (Sanskrit)
सत्यमेव जयते (Devanāgarī)
"Truth Alone Triumphs"[1]
Anthem: Jana Gana Mana
Thou art the ruler of the minds of all people[2]

National Song[4]
Vande Mataram
I bow to thee, Mother[3]

Capital New Delhi
‡) 28°34′N 77°12′E / 28.567°N 77.2°E / 28.567; 77.2
Largest city Mumbai
Official languages Hindi, English[show]
Hindi in the Devanagari script is the official language of the Union
[5] and English the "subsidiary official language".[6]
Constitutionally recognised
languages 8th Schedule:[show]
Assamese
Bengali
Bodo
Dogri
Gujarati
Hindi
Kannada
Kashmiri
Konkani
Maithili
Malayalam
Manipuri
Marathi
Nepali
Oriya
Punjabi
Sanskrit
Santali
Sindhi
Tamil
Telugu
Urdu[7]
Demonym Indian
Government Federal republic
Parliamentary democracy[8]
- President Pratibha Patil
- Vice-President of India Hamid Ansari
- Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
- Chief Justice K. G. Balakrishnan
Legislature Sansad
- Upper House Rajya Sabha
- Lower House Lok Sabha
Independence from United Kingdom
- Declared 15 August 1947
- Republic 26 January 1950
Area
- Total 3,287,240‡ km2 (7th)
1,269,210 sq mi
- Water (%) 9.56
Population
- 2008 estimate 1,147,995,904[9] (2nd)
- 2001 census 1,028,610,328[10]
- Density 349/km2 (32nd)
904/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $3.288 trillion[11]
- Per capita $2,762[11]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $1.209 trillion[11]
- Per capita $1,016[11]
Gini (2004) 36.8[12]
HDI (2008) 0.609 (medium) (132)
Currency Indian rupee (₨) (INR)
Time zone IST (UTC+5:30)
- Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+5:30)
Drives on the left
Internet TLD .in
Calling code 91
Non-numbered Footnotes:[show]
* Bharat Ganarajya, that is, the Republic of India in Hindi,[8]
written in the Devanāgarī script. See also other official names
‡ This is the figure as per the United Nations though the Indian
government lists the total area as 3,287,260 square kilometres.[13]

India, officially the Republic of India (Hindi: भारत गणराज्य Bhārat
Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages), is a country in South
Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by geographical area, the
second-most populous country, and the most populous democracy in the
world. Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on
the west, and the Bay of Bengal on the east, India has a coastline of
7,517 kilometres (4,700 mi).[14] It is bordered by Pakistan to the
west;[15] People's Republic of China (PRC), Nepal, and Bhutan to the
north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. India is in the
vicinity of Sri Lanka, the Maldives, and Indonesia in the Indian
Ocean.
Home to the Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade
routes and vast empires, the Indian subcontinent was identified with
its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history.[16]
Four major religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism
originated there, while Zoroastrianism, Judaism, Christianity and
Islam arrived in the first millennium CE and shaped the region's
diverse culture. Gradually annexed by the British East India Company
from the early eighteenth century and colonised by the United Kingdom
from the mid-nineteenth century, India became an independent nation in
1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by widespread
nonviolent resistance.
India is a republic consisting of 28 states and seven union
territories with a parliamentary system of democracy. It has the
world's twelfth largest economy at market exchange rates and the
fourth largest in purchasing power. Economic reforms since 1991 have
transformed it into one of the fastest growing economies;[17] however,
it still suffers from high levels of poverty,[18] illiteracy, and
malnutrition. A pluralistic, multilingual, and multiethnic society,
India is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of
protected habitats.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
3 Government
3.1 Administrative divisions
4 Politics
5 Foreign relations and military
6 Geography
7 Flora and fauna
8 Economy
9 Demographics
10 Culture
10.1 Sports
11 See also
12 Notes
13 References
14 External links




Islamic empire
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Age of the Caliphs
Expansion under Prophet Mohammad, 622-632

Expansion during the Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661

Expansion during the Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750
Islamic Empire may refer to
The Caliphates of the early Middle Ages:
Rashidun Caliphate (632-661) Also includes : Cyprus, Crete, Rhodes,
Southern and Eastern part of Sicily (not in picture)
Umayyad Caliphate (661-750) - Successor of the Rashidun Caliphate
Umayyad Emirate in the Al-Andalus (Islamic Iberia) (750-929)
Umayyad Caliphate of Córdoba in the Al-Andalus (Islamic Iberia)
(929-1031)
Abbasid Caliphate (750-1258) - Successor of the Umayyad Caliphate
Fatimid Caliphate (910-1171)
Ayyubid dynasty (1174–1342)
Mamluk Sultanate (1250-1517)
The 9th to 11th century saw the formation of several Muslim Iranian
dynasties,
Samanid Empire (819–999)
Tahirid Empire (821-873)
Saffarid Empire (861-1003)
Buyid Empire (932-1055)
Sallarid Empire (942-979)
Late Medieval Islamic Empires, predominantly under Berber and Turkic
rule,
Almoravid dynasty (1040–1147)
Almohad dynasty (1121–1269)
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Caliphate
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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The term caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) refers to a
traditional form of government based on the religion of Islam. The
term is also used to refer to a state which implements such a
government. This form of government is based on the principle that
there is a single unified nation of Muslim believers, the Ummah, led
by a head of state, the caliph (خليفة or khalīfah), who is a successor
to the Islamic prophet Muhammad's political authority.
Historically there have been many states claiming to be led by
caliphates, some existing simultaneously. Sunni Islam dictates that
the caliph should be selected by Shura[1], elected by Muslims or their
representatives. Followers of Shia Islam believe the caliph was an
imam descended in a line from the Ahl al-Bayt. From the time of
Muhammad until 1924, caliphates, often several at a single time and
both real and illusory, were claimed by various dynasties, including
the Umayyads (who were driven from Damascus to Córdoba), the Abbasids
(who ruled from Baghdad and drove away the Umayyads from Damascus),
the Fatimids (who ruled from Cairo), and finally the Ottomans.
Many Muslim countries, like Indonesia and Malaysia were never subject,
in any way, to the authority of a Caliphate. Rather they had their
own, local, rulers who did not recognise the Caliph.
The caliphate was "the core political concept of Sunni Islam, by the
consensus of the Muslim majority in the early centuries."[2]


Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Rashidun, 632-661
1.2 Umayyads, 7th-8th century
1.2.1 The Caliphate in Hispania
1.3 Abbasids, 8th-13th century
1.4 Shadow Caliphate, 13th-16th century
1.5 Ottomans, 16th-20th century
1.6 Khilafat Movement, 1920
1.7 End of the Caliphate, 1924
2 Religious basis
2.1 Quran
2.2 Hadith
2.3 The Sahaba of Muhammad
2.4 The sayings of Islamic scholars
3 Reestablishment of the Caliphate
3.1 Islamist call
3.2 Opposition
4 Political system
4.1 Electing or appointing a Caliph
4.2 Sunni belief
4.3 Shi'a belief
4.4 Majlis al-Shura: Parliament
4.5 Accountability of rulers
4.6 Rule of Law
4.7 Economy
5 Famous caliphs
6 Further reading
7 See also
8 Notes
9 References
10 External links



Community
Main article: Muslim world
Demographics
See also: Islam by country and Demographics of Islam
Muslim percentage of population by country
Commonly cited estimates of the Muslim population in 2007 range from
1.3 billion to 1.8 billion. Approximately 85% are Sunni and 15% are
Shi'a, with a small minority belonging to other sects. Some 30–40
countries are Muslim-majority, and Arabs account for around 20% of all
Muslims worldwide. South Asia and Southeast Asia contain the most
populous Muslim countries, with Indonesia, India, Pakistan, and
Bangladesh having more than 100 million adherents each.[115] According
to U.S. government figures, in 2006 there were 20 million Muslims in
China.[116] In the Middle East, the non-Arab countries of Turkey and
Iran are the largest Muslim-majority countries; in Africa, Egypt and
Nigeria have the most populous Muslim communities.[115] Islam is the
second largest religion after Christianity in many European countries.
[117]


Vietnam
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
Socialist Republic of Vietnam
Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam

Flag Coat of arms

Motto: Độc lập - Tự do - Hạnh phúc
"Independence - Freedom - Happiness"
Anthem: Tiến Quân Ca
"Army March" (first verse)

Location of Vietnam (green) in ASEAN (dark grey) — [Legend]

Capital Hanoi
21°2′N 105°51′E / 21.033°N 105.85°E / 21.033; 105.85
Largest city Ho Chi Minh City
Official languages Vietnamese
Demonym Vietnamese
Government Socialist republic,1
Single-party communist state
- President Nguyễn Minh Triết
- Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng
- General Secretary of CPV Nông Đức Mạnh
- National Assembly Chairman Nguyễn Phú Trọng
Formation
- Đại Việt 1054
- French annexation 1853 to 1883
- Independence from France September 2, 1945
- Reunification April 30, 1975
- Current constitution December 19, 1980
Area
- Total 331,690 km2 (65th)
128,527 sq mi
- Water (%) 1.3
Population
- 2008 mid-year estimate 86,116,559 (13th)
- 1999 census 76,323,173
- Density 253/km2 (46th)
655/sq mi
GDP (PPP) 2008 estimate
- Total $240.364 billion[1]
- Per capita $2,783[1]
GDP (nominal) 2008 estimate
- Total $89.829 billion[1]
- Per capita $1,040[1]
Gini (2002) 37 (medium) (59th)
HDI (2008) ▼ 0.718 (medium) (114th)
Currency đồng (₫) (VND)
Time zone UTC+7 (UTC+7)
- Summer (DST) No DST (UTC+7)
Drives on the right
Internet TLD .vn
Calling code 84

1 According to the official name and 1992 Constitution.

Vietnam (pronounced /ˌviː.ɛtˈnɑːm/; Vietnamese: Việt Nam, officially
the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Cộng hòa xã hội chủ
nghĩa Việt Nam), is the easternmost country on the Indochina Peninsula
in Southeast Asia. It is bordered by China to the north, Laos to the
northwest, Cambodia to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the
east. With a population of over 86 million, Vietnam is the 13th most
populous country in the world.
The people of Vietnam regained independence and broke away from China
in AD 938 after their victory at the battle of Bạch Đằng River.
Successive dynasties flourished along with geographic and political
expansion deeper into Southeast Asia, until it was colonized by the
French in the mid-19th century. Efforts to resist the French
eventually led to their expulsion from the country in the mid-20th
century, leaving a nation divided politically into two countries.
Fighting between the two sides continued during the Vietnam War,
ending with a North Vietnamese victory in 1975.
Emerging from this prolonged military engagement, the war-ravaged
nation was politically isolated. The government’s centrally planned
economic decisions hindered post-war reconstruction and its treatment
of the losing side engendered more resentment than reconciliation. In
1986, it instituted economic and political reforms and began a path
towards international reintegration. By 2000, it had established
diplomatic relations with most nations. Its economic growth had been
among the highest in the world in the past decade. These efforts
culminated in Vietnam joining the World Trade Organization in 2007 and
its successful bid to become a non-permanent member of the United
Nations Security Council in 2008.
Contents
[hide]
1 Etymology
2 History
2.1 Pre-Dynastic era
2.2 Dynastic era
2.3 Western colonial era
2.4 First Indochina War
2.5 Vietnam War
2.6 Postwar
2.7 Đổi Mới
3 Government and politics
3.1 Human rights
4 International relations
5 Subdivisions
6 Geography and climate
7 Nature
7.1 Biodiversity
8 Economy
9 Military
10 Transport
11 Demography
11.1 Population
11.2 Languages
11.3 Religions
11.4 Education
12 Science and technology
13 Culture
13.1 Media
13.2 Tourism
14 International rankings
15 See also
16 References
17 Other documents
18 External links





Taiwan
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
"Formosa" redirects here. For other uses, see Formosa
(disambiguation).
This article is about the island of Taiwan. For the state commonly
referred to as "Taiwan" which governs the island, see Republic of
China. For the administrative province of the ROC, see Taiwan
Province. For other uses, see Taiwan (disambiguation).
Taiwan
臺灣
台灣
Taiwan is mostly mountainous in the east and gently sloping plains in
the west. The Penghu Islands are west of Taiwan (NASA).
Geography

Location Pacific Ocean, 120 km (74.6 mi) off the coast of mainland
China
Coordinates 23°46′N 121°0′E / 23.767°N 121°E / 23.767; 121
Area 34,507 km2 (13,323.2 sq mi) (39th)
Highest point Yu Shan (3,952 m (12,965.9 ft))
Country
Republic of China
Capital city Taipei
Largest city Taipei (2,619,920)





Demographics
Demonym Taiwanese
Population 23,036,087 (as of 2008)
Density 668 /km² (1,730 /sq mi)
Ethnic groups Taiwanese people

84% Taiwanese[1]
14% mainland Chinese / waishengren[2]

2% Aboriginal Taiwanese
Please note that all population percentages are those of the total
population of the island

Taiwan
Traditional Chinese: 臺灣 or 台灣
Simplified Chinese: 台湾
[show]Transliterations
Hakka
- Romanization: Thòi-vàn
Mandarin
- Hanyu Pinyin: Táiwān
- Wade-Giles: T'ai²-wan¹
- Gwoyeu Romatzyh: Tairuan
Min
- Hokkien POJ: Tâi-oân
- Min-dong BUC: Dài-uăng
Cantonese
- Jyutping: Toi4 Waan1


Taiwan (台灣; historically 大灣 / 台員 / 大員 / 台圓 / 大圓 / 台窩灣), also known as
Formosa (福爾摩沙; from Portuguese (Ilha) Formosa, meaning "beautiful
(island)"), is an island located in East Asia between the South China
Sea and the East China Sea off the southeastern coast of mainland
China. Since the end of World War II in 1945, Taiwan has been governed
by the Republic of China (ROC), which itself is commonly known as
"Taiwan" since the 1970s.[citation needed]
Separated from the Asian continent by the 180-kilometre-wide Taiwan
Strait, the main island of the group is 394 kilometres (245 mi) long
and 144 kilometres (89 mi) wide. To its northeast are the main islands
of Japan, and the southern end of the Ryukyu Islands of Japan is
directly to the east; the Philippines lie to its south. It spans
across the Tropic of Cancer and consists of steep mountains, covered
by tropical and subtropical vegetation. Other minor islands and islets
of the group include the Pescadores, Green Island, and Orchid Island
among others; as well as the Diaoyutai Islands which are controlled by
Japan since the 1970s and known as the Senkaku-shotō.
Since the end of the World War II in 1945, the island group has been
under the administration of the Republic of China, which was then the
de facto government of all China.[3] The island group is, however,
claimed by the People's Republic of China (PRC), which was established
in 1949 on mainland China, displaced the ROC, and considers itself the
successor state to the ROC.[4]
Taiwan's rapid economic growth in the decades after World War II has
transformed it into an advanced economy as one of the Four Asian
Tigers.[5] This economic rise is known as the Taiwan Miracle. It is
categorized as an advanced economy by the IMF and high-income economy
by the World Bank. Its technology industry plays a key role in the
global economy.[6] Taiwanese companies manufacture a large proportion
of the world's consumer electronics, although most of them are made in
their factories in mainland China.[7]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
1.1 Prehistory and early settlements
1.2 European settlement
1.3 Koxinga and Qing rule
1.4 Japanese rule
1.5 Kuomintang martial law period
1.6 Modern democratic era
2 Geography
2.1 Geology
2.2 Climate
2.3 Environment and pollution
2.4 Natural resources
2.5 Energy resources
3 Demographics
3.1 Ethnic groups
3.2 Languages
3.3 Religion
4 Culture
4.1 Sports
5 Political status
6 Economy
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
mrliu918
2009-07-03 09:22:34 UTC
Permalink
Quotation from wikipedia and other sources:

http://www.expresstorussia.com/train_moscow_beijing.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Siberian_Railway
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibirjak
http://www.eurorailways.com
http://www.eurorailways.com/?source=y-aa-10&OVRAW=Channel%20Tunnel&OVKEY=euro%20railway&OVMTC=advanced&OVADID=499733022&OVKWID=1875271522

Trans-Manchurian trains
To receive Russian train schedules and Russian train ticket prices as
well as to have the opportunity to order tickets online, please use
our Russian train tickets page.
The following section shows the various train routes and shows the
train numbers as well as arrival and departure schedules. You can find
out how long the various journeys are, and see a thorough list of all
the possible rail destinations in Russia.

Moscow - Beijing
Vostok #20 Moscow - Beijing The Vostok (translated as the East) train
began service from Moscow to Beijing in 2001. It is a Trans-Manchurian
train and therefore does not pass through Mongolia (which means that a
Mongolian visa is not required). Many people from Russia and China use
this train to transport their wares between the 2 countries - so,
you'll see many people with large bags on the train. The train is
quite modern with comfortable 1st and 2nd class compartments and a
good restaurant. Wheels are changed on the boarder Russia-China. It
takes about few hours.
Departure Moscow: 23:53 Friday
Arrival Beijing: 05:20
Total hours: 6d 27m

Vostok #19 Beijing - Moscow
Departure Beijing (local time): 22:56 Saturday
Arrival Moscow: 17:56
Total hours: 6d 27m
Total km: 8 961

Train: #020. Moscow - Harbin - Beijing
Departs: Moscow, Yaroslavsky station [only on Fridays at 23:53]
Arrives: Beijing [6 d 27 mins later, at 05:20]

Routes
Endpoints Main cities Kms Period [2]
Berlin - St.Petersburg Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Vitebsk 2,284 36:12
[3]
Berlin - Moscow Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk 1,978 28:40 [4]
Berlin - Novosibirsk Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Vladimir-N.Novgorod-Kirov-Perm-
Yekaterinburg-Tyumen-Omsk 5,130 89:18
Berlin - Chelyabinsk Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Vladimir-N.Novgorod-Kirov-Perm-Yekaterinburg 3,892 72:28
Berlin - Kazan Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-
Smolensk-Vladimir-N.Novgorod 2.836 50:54
Berlin - Ufa Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Ryazan-Tambov-Saratov-Samara 3,871 72:06
Berlin - Astana Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Ryazan-Tambov-Saratov-Uralsk-Orenburg 4,300 99:15
Berlin - Adler Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Ryazan-Voronezh-Rostov-Krasnodar-Sochi 3,643 63:58

m
Station

0 [show]Yaroslavsky Terminal, Moscow

59 Khotkovo

73 Sergiyev Posad

Moscow - Vladimir Oblast border

112 Alexandrov

Balakirevo

Vladimir - Yaroslavl Oblast border

145 Berendeevo

Ryazantsevo

Silnitsi

200 Petrovskoye

224 Rostov Yaroslavski

Semibratovo

Kozmodemyansk


284 Yaroslavl

289 [show]Volga River

356 Danilov

to Vologda and Arkhangelsk

Sot

394 Lyubim

Seksha

Yaroslavl - Kostroma Oblast border

Brodni

Korega

450 Bui

Rossolovo

Khramki

501 Galich

Krasilnikovo

Loparevo

Monakovo

Antrolovo

Nikkolo-Ugol

Nikolo-Poloma

Nomzha

Yelenskiy

Neva

Nelsha

Brantovka

Petrushino

Kostrikha

651 Manturovo

Vocherovo

Shekshema

Varakinskiy

Vetluga River

698 Sharya

Zeblyaki

Yakshanga

Burunduchikha

Kostroma - Kirov Oblast border

Suprotivniy

Metil

Gostovskaya

Shabalino

818 Svetcha

Yuma

Kapidantsi

Atsvezh

Darovitsa

to Nizhni Novgorod & Moscow

870 Kotelnich

Vyatka River

Bistryagi

Orichi

Strizhi

Lyangasovo

Chukhlominskiy


957 [show]Kirov

975 Pozdino

Poloy

995 Bum-Kombinat

Prosnitsa

Ardashi

Rekmino

1052 Zuevka

Kosa

Falenki

1127 Yar

Kirov Oblast - Udmurtia border

Kozmil

1165 Glazov

1194 Balyezino

Pibanshur

1221 Cheptsa River

1223 Chepsta

Kez

Kabalud

Kuzma

Udmurtia - Perm Krai border

Borodulino

Subbotniki

1310 Vereshchagino

Zyukay

1340 Mendeleevo

Grigorevskaya

1387 Chaikovskaya

Shabunichi

1410 Overyata

Kurya

1432 Kama River


1436 [show]Perm

1452 Ferma

Mulyanka

Yug

Yergach

1534 Kungur

Kishert

Shumkovo

Tulumbasi

Kordon

Perm Krai - Sverdlovsk Oblast border

Shamary

1672 Shalya

Sarga

Sabik

1729 Kuzino

1748 Krylosovo

1770 Pervouralsk

1777 Europe - Asia border

Iset River


1816 [show]Yekaterinburg

Shartash

Putevka

Kosolino

Gagarskiy

Bazhenovo

Gryaznovskaya

1912 Bogdannovich

Pishminskaya

Yelanskiy

1955 Kamyshlov

Aksarikha

Oshchepkovo

Proselok

2033 Talitsa

2064 Yushala

Bahkmetskoye

Tugulym

Karmak

Sverdlovsk - Tyumen Oblast border


2144 [show]Tyumen

Voynovka

Ozero Andreyevskoya

Vinzili

Bogdaninskaya

2222 Yalutorovsk

Tobol River

Zavodoukovsk

Novaya Zaimka

Vagay

Omutinskaya

Lamyenskaya

Golishmanovo

Karasulskaya

2431 Ishim

Ishim River

Maslyanskaya

Novo Andreyevskiy

Tyumen - Omsk Oblast border

Mangut

2565 Nazyvayevsk

Dragunskaya

Lyubinskaya


2706 Irtysh River

2712 [show]Omsk

Kormilovka

2760 Kalachinsk

Ivanovka

Omsk - Novosibirsk Oblast border

Karatkansk

2885 Tatarsk

Kabakly

Chany

Ozero Karachinskoye

Koshkul

Tebisskaya

3040 Barabinsk

Kozhurla

Ubinskaya

Kargat

Kokoshino

3212 Chulym

Duplenskaya

Lesnaya Polyana

Chik

3322 Ob


3332 Ob River

3335 [show]Novosibirsk

Mochische

Oyash

Chebula

3463 Bolotnaya

Novosibirsk - Kemerovo Oblast border

3491 Yurga

Tom River

Talmenka

Yashkino

Kholkino

Branch line to Tomsk

3570 Tayga

Likhtach

3602 Anzhero-Sudzhensk

Yaya

Izhmorsk

Berikulsk

Antibesskiy

3715 Mariinsk

Suslovo

Tyazhin

Itat

Kemerovo Oblast - Krasnoyarsk Krai border

3849 Bogotol

Kritovo

Chulym River

3917 Achinsk

3960 Chernorechsk

Kozulka

Zeledeyevo

Kacha

Minino


4098 Krasnoyarsk

4101 [show]Yenisei River

Zlobino

Zikovo

Sorokino

Kamarchaga

Balay

4227 Uyar

4262 Zaozyornaya

Kamala

Solyanka

Boshnyakovo

4343 Kansk-Yeniseiski]]

4375 Ilanskaya

Ingashiskaya

Tinskaya

Reshoti

Klyuchi

Krasnoyarsk Krai - Irkutsk Oblast border

Yurti

Biryusinsk


4516 Taishet

4520 [show]Baikal Amur Mainline junction

4555 Razgon

Alzamay

4631 Kamyshet

Uk

4680 Nizhneudinsk

Khingoy

Khudoyelanskaya

Sheberta

Utay

4794 Tulun

Shuba

Tulyushka

4875 Kuytun

Kharik

Kimeltey

4940 Zima

Tiret

Zalari

Irkutsk Oblast - Ust-Ordynsky border

Golovinskaya

5027 Kutulik

Zabituy

Ust-Ordynsky - Irkutsk Oblast border

5061 Cheremkhovo

5087 Polovina

Belaya

5124 Usolye-Sibirskoye

5133 Telma

Kitoy

5160 Angarsk

5170 Meget

5178 Irkutsk-Sort


5185 [show]Irkutsk

Kaya

Goncharovo

B. Lug

Podkamennaya

Kultuk

5312 Slyudyanka

Utulik

5358 Baykalsk

Murino

Irkutsk Oblast - Buryatia border

5390 Vydrino

5426 Tankhoi

Pereyemnaya

5477 Mysovaya

5530 Posolskaya

Timlyuy

5562 Selenginsk

Talovka

Tataurovo

Selenge River


5642 Ulan Ude

5655 [show]Trans-Mongolian line junction

Talitsi

5675 Onokhoy

Zaigraevo

Chelutay

Ilka

5734 Novoilinski

Kizma

Buryatia - Zabaykalsky Krai border

5784 Petrovsk-Zabaykalsky

Balyaga

Tarbagatai

Novo-Pavlovka

Tolbaga

Khokhotay

5884 Bada

Zhipkhegen

5932 Khilok

Khushenga

Kharagun

6053 Mogzon

Khilok River

6093 Sokhondo

6125 Yablonovaya

Lesnoy

Ingoda

Chernovskaya

Kadala


6199 [show]Chita

Peschanka

Atamanovka

Novaya

Makkaveyevo

6265 Darasun

6293 Karaymskaya


6312 [show]Trans-Manchurian line junction

Urulga

Zubarevo

Razmakhnino

Solntsevaya

6417 Onon

6446 Shilka-Pass.

Kholbon

6496 Priiskavaya

Nerchinsk

6532 Kuenga

Branch line to Sretensk

6593 Chernyshevsky-Zabaikalski

6629 Bushuley

Khoktonga

6670 Zilovo

Ulyakan

Uryum

Sbega

6789 Ksenevskaya

Kislyy Klug

Arteushka

Razdolnoye

6906 Mogocha

Taptugari

Semiozernyy

7010 Amazar

Zhanna

7075 Zabaykalsky Krai - Amur Oblast border

7119 Yerofei Pavlovich

7211 Urusha

7266 Takhtamigda


7273 [show]line to BAM

7306 Skovorodino

7323 Bolshoy Never

Taladan

Gonzha

7501 Magdagachi

Sulus

Tigda

7602 Ushumun

Sivaki

Mukhinskaya

Bereya

7723 Shimanovskaya

7772 Ledyanaya

Buzuli

7815 Svobodny

Zeya River

M. Chesnokovskaya

Serishevo

7873 Belogorsk


7875 [show]line to Blagoveshchensk

Vozhayevka

Pozdeyevka

Yekaterinoslavka

7992 Zavitaya

8037 Bureya

Domikan

8088 Arkhara

Rachi

Kundur-Khabarovskiy

Amur - Jewish Autonomous Oblasts border

8198 Obluchye

Kimkan

8234 Izvestkovaya

Birakan

Teploye Ozero

Londoko

8306 Bira


8351 [show]Birobidzhan

In

8480 Volochayevka

Dezhnevka

Nikolayevka

8512 Priamurskaya


8515 Amur J.A. Oblast - Khabarovsk Krai border

8521 [show]Khabarovsk

Korfovskaya

8598 Verino

8621 Khor

Dormidontovka

8642 Vyazemskaya

Rozengartovka

8756 Bikin

Khabarovsk - Primorsky Krai border

Zvenevoi

Burlit-Volochayevskiy

Luchegorsk

Guberovo

8890 Dalnerechensk

8900 Lazo

Ruzhino

Lesozavodsk

Shmkaovka

Sviyagino

9050 Spassk-Dalny

Muchnaya

9109 Sibirtsevo

Ipplolitovka

Ozernaya Pad

Dubininskiy

9177 Ussuriysk

Varanovskiy

Nadezdinskaya

line to Nakhodka

9255 Uglovaya


9289 Vladivostok

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The Trains● All major European rail routes are served by Premier
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● Also, rail and drive options are available. The best of two worlds,
use trains for long distances trips and the car to explore a region.
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including lockers, car rental, souvenir stores, fast foods and
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● Also, walking distances hotels normally are available.
A Value Fare● Depends on your itinerary, you will find the right
European rail pass or ticket/reservation that better fits your need
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Featured Offers
London Paris by Eurostar
promotional roundtrip
from $156
e-Tickets available

ITALY TOP 3
Rome, Florence, Venice
from US$ 133
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Private cabin from US$152 pp

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Paris to Berlin Paris Germany Night Train Brochure

From Departure To Arrive Duration


Paris Gare du Nord 08:46 PM Berlin Zoo 08:01 AM 11:15 hrs
F e a t u r e s

Double Cabins Couchettes and Seats Dining Car
Wash basin and air conditioning.
Breakfast included in the price.
Breakfast is served at cabin or in the dining car.
On board staff available throughout journey. > Shared cabins 4(T4) or 6(T6) persons
Unisex compartments.
Breakfast is upon payment. Travelers who want a breakfast must book it with the staff at the beginning of journey. Passengers can enjoy dinner and breakfast are served in the dining car. It is not necessary to make a reservation.
Complete dinner - approx US$ 26 pp. Breakfast: approx. US$ 8.
Accept major credit cards.



Paris/Berlin Night - Options & Fares
To buy the desired pass, click in the corresponding fare. Fares per
person
US$
Single Cabin - Full fare $417
Single Cabin - Passholder Fare $166
Double Cabin - Full fare $277
Double Cabin - Passholder Fare $108
Couchettes T4 (4 persons) - Full fare (1st class) $206
Couchettes T4 (4 persons) - Passholder fare (1st class) $39
Couchettes T6 (6 persons) - Full fare (2nd class) $198
Couchettes T6 (6 persons) - Passholder fare (2nd class) $32
Seats - Full fare (2nd class) $178
Seats - Passholder fare (2nd class) $15
Currency: US Dollars

Notes
Passholder fares:
Eurailpass, Eurail Select (incl. France, Benelux and Germany),
Europass, Eurailticket (covering the whole journey).
Exchange policy:
Up to 7 days before trip date, tickets must be returned to issuing
office and new ticket will be issued.
There are a US$ 15 handling fee.
Refund policy:
Seats and couchettes aren't refundable, all others are refundable up
to 3 days before departure date.
Tickets must be returned to issuing office.
There are a US$ 15 handling fee.
Handling fee:
All order (Total) less than US$ 350 have a handling fee US$ 15.

Shipping Information
Euro Railways ships sometimes in less than 24 hours! We delivery
Worldwide using FedEx services. They don't deliver to P.O. boxes or
APO/FPO addresses; please remember to include a street address on your
order. Delivery time depends on shipping address. It takes 1-4
working days. Orders shipped to an address different from the billing
address will be delayed for verification (usually one extra day).
Shipping Costs
US/Canada - FedEx Saver ( 2 or 3 days): FREE
US/Canada - FedEx Priority (next day- afternoon): US$ 18
FedEx Overnight Priority (next day-up morning): US$ 25
FedEx International (see note below): US$ 29*
Note:
1) * - some African, Middle East and Central Asia countries may occur
surcharges.
2) All order (Total) less than US$ 350 have a handling fee US$ 15.


How Place an Order
To buy the desired pass, click in the corresponding price. To finish
purchase directs for the Check-out
Our 2-Step Checkout is designed to make the online ordering process as
simple as possible,
but if you do have difficulty, please click here to e-mail Sales for
assistance.
Checkout:
For Step 1 of the checkout procedure, enter your shipping option and
billing information. If the billing information you provide is
different from the information on file with your credit card company,
they will not approve the purchase and your order will be delayed.
Credit Cards
Euro Railways accepts credit cards Visa, MasterCard, American Express,
Dinners.
We will not bill your credit card until we ship your order.
After you have entered all the information requested,
click on the "Submit This Order" button to continue to Step 2.
Order Request
Once we have received your order request, we send you an e-mail copy
of your order and information that we received. If you do not receive
an e-mail from us within 2 hours of placing your order, please click
here to e-mail Sales for assistance.



London to Paris by Eurostar
Eurostar Seat Chart
Eurostar e-Tickets Instructions
More information about Eurostar Services...



e-Tickets available

From To Duration Departures
London St Pancras Int
Paris
Gare du Nord 2h 20 min From London: 05:25; 06:40; 07:20; 08:40; 09:40;
13:10; 15:00; 16:20; 17:35; 19:15
From Paris: 06:43; 08:07; 09:07; 11:13; 13:01; 14:34; 16:13; 17:13;
18:43; 20:13

Eurostar Fares - Currency: US Dollars
Please, click on the desired fare to start placing an order.
Options O n e W a y R o u n d t r i p Notes
1st
Class 2nd Class 1st
Class 2nd
Class

Promotional Roundtrip Fare
Limited seats are available for this fare.
Subject to availability confirmation.
Make you reservation as soon as you can.
$272 $156

Business Premier
$425 $850 Fully Refundable and
Exchangeable.
Full Fare
$415 $292 $830 $584
Leisure Fare

$215 $131 $310 $196
Passholder Fare
(Eurail, Eurail Select, BritRail, France, Benelux)
$148 $83 $296 $192
Senior
(+60 years old) $154 $96 $308 $218
Youth
(12-25 years old) $156 $98 $312 $196
Youth Flexi Voucher - Open ticket
(12-25 years old)
(valid for both directions) $98 Open ticket.
Children
(4-11 years old) $96 $52 $192 $104
Wheelchair
$55 $110
Wheelchair Companion
$55 $110
Currency: US Dollars


Notes:

Premier Train Fee: There are a US$ 12 Premier Train Fee per order .
Includes seat reservation
All booking are subject seat availability confirmation. When a
required fare isn't available we will advise by email.
Business Premier:
Fully exchangeable and refundable.
Dedicated Ticket Desk and Check in area.
Spacious reclining seats.
Wifi Access in Terminal. Laptop sockets on board the train.
Meals/refreshments served at the seat.
1st class: all 1st class fares include:
Meals/refreshments served at the seat.
Power sockets at seats.
Full Fare: Flexible tickets. Fully exchangeable and refundable.
Leisure Fare: Promotional fare available to all passengers. Not
refundable. Not Exchangeable.
Promotional Roundtrip Fare: Special Fare. Not exchangeable. Not
refundable. Not valid for itinerary London/Disneyland Paris.
This fare have limited seats available. Make you reservation as soon
as you can.
Senior: Valid for persons with 60 or more years old. Valid for travel
any day of the week.
No refundable. Exchangeable at train station before departure date
Passholder: Valid for passengers traveling with a validated
Eurailpass, BritRail, Eurail Selectpass, Europass, France Railpass,
France'n Benelux, France'n Italy, France'n Switzerland, German'n
Benelux or Benelux Tourrail Pass.
No Refundable. Exchangeable at train station before departure date.
Youth: special fare for persons under 26 years old at time of travel.
No refundable. Exchangeable at train station before departure date.
Youth Flexi Voucher: Open ticket. Reservations must be done at train
station at least 48 hours before desired trip date/time. No
refundable.
Children: children fare are valid for children between 4 and 11 years
old. Children under 4 years old travel free. No refundable.
Exchangeable at train station before departure date
Exchange procedures: When applicable, exchanges can be performed
before departure with Euro Railways or in Europe at any Eurostar
station (London Waterloo, Paris Nord, Brussels Midi, Ashford
International, Lille)
Refund procedures: When applicable, tickets must be sent to Euro
Railways for refund them.
Fares are in currency indicated and are subject to change.

Shipping Information
Euro Railways ships sometimes in less than 24 hours! We delivery
Worldwide using FedEx services. They don't deliver to P.O. boxes or
APO/FPO addresses; please remember to include a street address on your
order. Delivery time depends on shipping address. It takes 1-4
working days. Orders shipped to an address different from the billing
address will be delayed for verification (usually one extra day).
Shipping Costs
US/Canada - FedEx Saver ( 2 or 3 days): FREE
US/Canada - FedEx Priority (next day- afternoon): US$ 18
FedEx Overnight Priority (next day-up morning): US$ 29
FedEx Overnight Priority - Saturday delivery: US$ 40
FedEx International (see note below): US$ 29*
Note:
1) Some deliveries are subject extended delivery area surcharge - US$
20. We'll advise by email.
2) * - some countries may occur surcharges. We'll advise by email.
3) All order (Total) less than US$ 350 have a handling fee US$ 15.

How Place an Order
To buy the desired pass, click in the corresponding price. To finish
purchase directs for the Check-out
Our 2-Step Checkout is designed to make the online ordering process as
simple as possible,
but if you do have difficulty, please click here to e-mail Sales for
assistance.
Checkout:
For Step 1 of the checkout procedure, enter your shipping option and
billing information. If the billing information you provide is
different from the information on file with your credit card company,
they will not approve the purchase and your order will be delayed.
Credit Cards
Euro Railways accepts credit cards Visa, MasterCard, American Express,
Dinners.
We will not bill your credit card until we ship your order.
After you have entered all the information requested,
click on the "Submit This Order" button to continue to Step 2.
Order Request
Once we have received your order request, we send you an e-mail copy
of your order and information that we received. If you do not receive
an e-mail from us within 2 hours of placing your order, please click
here to e-mail Sales for assistance.
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-07-03 15:33:07 UTC
Permalink
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Trans-Manchurian trains
To receive Russian train schedules and Russian train ticket prices as
well as to have the opportunity to order tickets online, please use
our Russian train tickets page.
The following section shows the various train routes and shows the
train numbers as well as arrival and departure schedules. You can find
out how long the various journeys are, and see a thorough list of all
the possible rail destinations in Russia.
Moscow - Beijing
Vostok #20 Moscow - Beijing  The Vostok (translated as the East) train
began service from Moscow to Beijing in 2001. It is a Trans-Manchurian
train and therefore does not pass through Mongolia (which means that a
Mongolian visa is not required). Many people from Russia and China use
this train to transport their wares between the 2 countries - so,
you'll see many people with large bags on the train. The train is
quite modern with comfortable 1st and 2nd class compartments and a
good restaurant. Wheels are changed on the boarder Russia-China. It
takes about few hours.
Departure Moscow:  23:53 Friday
Arrival Beijing: 05:20
Total hours:  6d 27m
Vostok #19 Beijing - Moscow
Departure Beijing (local time): 22:56 Saturday
Arrival Moscow: 17:56
Total hours:  6d 27m
Total km: 8 961
Train: #020. Moscow - Harbin - Beijing
Departs: Moscow, Yaroslavsky station [only on Fridays at 23:53]
Arrives: Beijing [6 d 27 mins later, at 05:20]
Routes
Endpoints Main cities Kms Period [2]
Berlin - St.Petersburg Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Vitebsk 2,284 36:12
[3]
Berlin - Moscow Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk 1,978 28:40 [4]
Berlin - Novosibirsk Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Vladimir-N.Novgorod-Kirov-Perm-
Yekaterinburg-Tyumen-Omsk 5,130 89:18
Berlin - Chelyabinsk Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Vladimir-N.Novgorod-Kirov-Perm-Yekaterinburg 3,892 72:28
Berlin - Kazan Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-
Smolensk-Vladimir-N.Novgorod 2.836 50:54
Berlin - Ufa Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Ryazan-Tambov-Saratov-Samara 3,871 72:06
Berlin - Astana Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Ryazan-Tambov-Saratov-Uralsk-Orenburg 4,300 99:15
Berlin - Adler Poznań-Warsaw-Brest-Minsk-Smolensk-
Ryazan-Voronezh-Rostov-Krasnodar-Sochi 3,643 63:58
m
Station
 0 [show]Yaroslavsky Terminal, Moscow
 59 Khotkovo
 73 Sergiyev Posad
  Moscow - Vladimir Oblast border
 112 Alexandrov
  Balakirevo
  Vladimir - Yaroslavl Oblast border
 145 Berendeevo
  Ryazantsevo
  Silnitsi
 200 Petrovskoye
 224 Rostov Yaroslavski
  Semibratovo
  Kozmodemyansk
 284 Yaroslavl
 289 [show]Volga River
 356 Danilov
  to Vologda and Arkhangelsk
  Sot
 394 Lyubim
  Seksha
  Yaroslavl - Kostroma Oblast border
  Brodni
  Korega
 450 Bui
  Rossolovo
  Khramki
 501 Galich
  Krasilnikovo
  Loparevo
  Monakovo
  Antrolovo
  Nikkolo-Ugol
  Nikolo-Poloma
  Nomzha
  Yelenskiy
  Neva
  Nelsha
  Brantovka
  Petrushino
  Kostrikha
 651 Manturovo
  Vocherovo
  Shekshema
  Varakinskiy
  Vetluga River
 698 Sharya
  Zeblyaki
  Yakshanga
  Burunduchikha
  Kostroma - Kirov Oblast border
  Suprotivniy
  Metil
  Gostovskaya
  Shabalino
 818 Svetcha
  Yuma
  Kapidantsi
  Atsvezh
  Darovitsa
  to Nizhni Novgorod & Moscow
 870 Kotelnich
  Vyatka River
  Bistryagi
  Orichi
  Strizhi
  Lyangasovo
  Chukhlominskiy
 957 [show]Kirov
 975 Pozdino
  Poloy
 995 Bum-Kombinat
  Prosnitsa
  Ardashi
  Rekmino
 1052 Zuevka
  Kosa
  Falenki
 1127 Yar
  Kirov Oblast - Udmurtia border
  Kozmil
 1165 Glazov
 1194 Balyezino
  Pibanshur
 1221 Cheptsa River
 1223 Chepsta
  Kez
  Kabalud
  Kuzma
  Udmurtia - Perm Krai border
  Borodulino
  Subbotniki
 1310 Vereshchagino
  Zyukay
 1340 Mendeleevo
  Grigorevskaya
 1387 Chaikovskaya
  Shabunichi
 1410 Overyata
  Kurya
 1432 Kama River
 1436 [show]Perm
 1452 Ferma
  Mulyanka
  Yug
  Yergach
 1534 Kungur
  Kishert
  Shumkovo
  Tulumbasi
  Kordon
  Perm Krai - Sverdlovsk Oblast border
  Shamary
 1672 Shalya
  Sarga
  Sabik
 1729 Kuzino
 1748 Krylosovo
 1770 Pervouralsk
 1777 Europe - Asia border
  Iset River
 1816 [show]Yekaterinburg
  Shartash
  Putevka
  Kosolino
  Gagarskiy
  Bazhenovo
  Gryaznovskaya
 1912 Bogdannovich
  Pishminskaya
  Yelanskiy
 1955 Kamyshlov
  Aksarikha
  Oshchepkovo
  Proselok
 2033 Talitsa
 2064 Yushala
  Bahkmetskoye
  Tugulym
  Karmak
  Sverdlovsk - Tyumen Oblast border
 2144 [show]Tyumen
  Voynovka
  Ozero Andreyevskoya
  Vinzili
  Bogdaninskaya
 2222 Yalutorovsk
  Tobol River
  Zavodoukovsk
  Novaya Zaimka
  Vagay
  Omutinskaya
  Lamyenskaya
  Golishmanovo
  Karasulskaya
 2431 Ishim
  Ishim River
  Maslyanskaya
  Novo Andreyevskiy
  Tyumen - Omsk Oblast border
  Mangut
 2565 Nazyvayevsk
  Dragunskaya
  Lyubinskaya
 2706 Irtysh River
 2712 [show]Omsk
  Kormilovka
 2760 Kalachinsk
  Ivanovka
  Omsk - Novosibirsk Oblast border
  Karatkansk
 2885 Tatarsk
  Kabakly
  Chany
  Ozero Karachinskoye
  Koshkul
  Tebisskaya
 3040 Barabinsk
  Kozhurla
  Ubinskaya
  Kargat
  Kokoshino
 3212 Chulym
  Duplenskaya
  Lesnaya Polyana
  Chik
 3322 Ob
 3332 Ob River
 3335 [show]Novosibirsk
  Mochische
  Oyash
  Chebula
 3463 Bolotnaya
  Novosibirsk - Kemerovo Oblast border
 3491 Yurga
  Tom River
  Talmenka
  Yashkino
  Kholkino
  Branch line to Tomsk
 3570 Tayga
  Likhtach
 3602 Anzhero-Sudzhensk
  Yaya
  Izhmorsk
  Berikulsk
  Antibesskiy
 3715 Mariinsk
  Suslovo
  Tyazhin
  Itat
  Kemerovo Oblast - Krasnoyarsk Krai border
 3849 Bogotol
  Kritovo
  Chulym River
 3917 Achinsk
 3960 Chernorechsk
  Kozulka
  Zeledeyevo
  Kacha
  Minino
 4098 Krasnoyarsk
 4101 [show]Yenisei River
  Zlobino
  Zikovo
  Sorokino
  Kamarchaga
  Balay
 4227 Uyar
 4262 Zaozyornaya
  Kamala
  Solyanka
  Boshnyakovo
 4343 Kansk-Yeniseiski]]
 4375 Ilanskaya
  Ingashiskaya
  Tinskaya
  Reshoti
  Klyuchi
  Krasnoyarsk Krai - Irkutsk Oblast border
  Yurti
  Biryusinsk
 4516 Taishet
 4520 [show]Baikal Amur Mainline junction
 4555 Razgon
  Alzamay
 4631 Kamyshet
  Uk
 4680 Nizhneudinsk
  Khingoy
  Khudoyelanskaya
  Sheberta
  Utay
 4794 Tulun
  Shuba
  Tulyushka
 4875 Kuytun
  Kharik
  Kimeltey
 4940 Zima
  Tiret
  Zalari
  Irkutsk Oblast - Ust-Ordynsky border
  Golovinskaya
 5027 Kutulik
  Zabituy
  Ust-Ordynsky - Irkutsk Oblast border
 5061 Cheremkhovo
 5087 Polovina
  Belaya
 5124 Usolye-Sibirskoye
 5133 Telma
  Kitoy
 5160 Angarsk
 5170 Meget
 5178 Irkutsk-Sort
 5185 [show]Irkutsk
  Kaya
  Goncharovo
  B. Lug
  Podkamennaya
  Kultuk
 5312 Slyudyanka
  Utulik
 5358 Baykalsk
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Second Chance
Steve Rushin
七月 03, 1995
Mike Tyson deserves one in the ring, but whether he again merits the
public's esteem is another matter
七月 03, 1995
Second Chance
Mike Tyson deserves one in the ring, but whether he again merits the
public's esteem is another matter
Steve Rushin, Sonja Steptoe


PRINT EMAIL MOST POPULAR SHARE

1 2 3 4 5


"Why not root for Mike Tyson?" asks the man who prosecuted him,
Indianapolis attorney Greg Garrison. "He paid his debt to society.
People have expected me to have a medieval attitude about him, that he
ought never to have success again. But that's antithetical to the
notion of rehabilitative justice. How many times do you pay for the
same sin?"

Socrates might respond this way: How does one rehabilitate a man who
won't acknowledge having sinned? "How do you heal somebody who doesn't
admit they want it?" asks Boston Globe columnist Ellen Goodman. "Even
your basic 12-step programs say you have to admit what your behavior
was."

Moreover, long before the rape conviction, Tyson's behavior was a
model of misogyny. He allegedly boasted that the best punch he ever
landed was on Robin Givens, his wife at the time. Upon receiving an
honorary doctorate from Central (Ohio) State in 1989, Tyson was moved
to remark to a gathering of about a thousand, "I don't know what kind
of doctor I am, but watching all these beautiful sisters up here, I'm
debating whether I should be a gynecologist." Which is to say he was a
crass act.

The heavy hopes of others he shed like a fighter sheds clothes at
weigh-in. "There are so many negative myths about black male athletes,
myths that I have personally committed myself to eradicating," says
Reggie Williams, the former Cincinnati city councilman and Bengal
linebacker who is now an executive at the Walt Disney World Company.
"But all of my actions will never carry the media clout or have the
domino effect of one of Mike Tyson's misdeeds."

In a poignant counterpoint to Tyson's circus maximus in Harlem, some
75 demonstrators protesting violence against women--members of African-
Americans Against Violence, a group formed in response to the Tyson
parade plans--assembled outside the Apollo the night before the
"salute." They were nevertheless rooting for the fighter. And why
wouldn't they be? Said spokesman Donald Suggs, "We want to get him to
the point where we can look at him as a hero."

Tyson declined an "invitation" to that rally; instead he reportedly
spent the evening in a men's clothing boutique a mile away. Two nights
earlier he had bought a $123,000 Mercedes over the telephone,
complementing the four $320,000 Bentley Azures he had recently
purchased in Las Vegas, where he had also sprung for a big house since
being sprung from the big house in March. There is nothing wrong with
that, except that Tyson claims an ascetic new lifestyle. "The only
thing I do is pray and fight," says Iron Mike.

To be fair, he did convert to Islam in prison and allegedly read the
great works of Western literature. And though he failed to obtain his
high school equivalency degree while spending three years behind bars,
there were larger lessons to absorb at the Indiana Youth Center. "You
hope he's learned something," says filmmaker Spike Lee, who visited
Tyson five times in the slammer. "I think eventually he'll speak out
against abuse to women."

Lee wrote and directed Do the Right Thing. Tyson has yet to do it. And
even he can't say that he has changed. "If I have," is all Tyson will
say, "I hope it's for the better."

Some sports fans would like to know whether that's true before they
decide to root for Tyson. "I don't find it easy to root for people
just because they win," says Temple basketball coach John Chaney. "I
find it easy to root for people because there's something about their
attitude."

"His lack of contrition and his immediate re-signing with Don King and
his purchase of a million-dollar house suggest that maybe he hasn't
changed," says Congressman Bill Richardson (D., N.Mex.), a fight fan
who has sponsored legislation to regulate the sport.



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Second Chance
Steve Rushin
七月 03, 1995
Mike Tyson deserves one in the ring, but whether he again merits the
public's esteem is another matter
七月 03, 1995
Second Chance
Mike Tyson deserves one in the ring, but whether he again merits the
public's esteem is another matter
Steve Rushin, Sonja Steptoe


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Flack he got. Only it wasn't Roberta. Roberta Flack didn't sing for
Mike Tyson, because the all-star parade planned for Tyson was
canceled. On account of he's a convicted rapist, recently paroled. And
the idea of celebrating his release--well, it drew some flack. So
instead of being paraded, the former heavyweight champion of the world
was discreetly "saluted" last week in the hazy heat of Harlem, where
preacher after preacher honoring the ex-champ proclaimed him "the
prodigal son."

You know: the Biblical boy who demands his share of his father's
estate, leaves home, squanders the money and returns to the old man,
repentant. "Father," says the son in Luke 15, "I have sinned against
God and against you; I am no longer fit to be called your son. Treat
me as one of your hired servants." But the father fetes the lad
instead. "Fetch a robe, the best we have, and put it on him," he tells
the help. "Put a ring on his finger and sandals on his feet. Bring the
fatted calf and kill it, and let us celebrate with a feast. For this
son of mine was dead and has come back to life. He was lost and is
found."

The above translation is from The Oxford Study Bible, which summarizes
the story as, "Joy over repentant sinners." If you forget the fact
that, in coming to Harlem, Tyson had not quite returned home (he's
from Brooklyn), or that he remains prodigiously prodigal (buying cars
like he's Adnan Kashoggi), or that he has yet to admit to or apologize
for raping 18-year-old Desiree Washington in an Indianapolis hotel
room, you might have figured him for a neo-New Testament hero, an
honest-to-goodness repentant sinner. Until, that is, he appeared at
the "press" conference.

Held in a tent in Harlem, the Q-and-A session was dominated by
"sycophants and psycho fans," as the New York Daily News put it. So
Tyson fielded such softballs as "Mike, I just want to tell you that
African-American women love you" and "Mike, do you still give away
free turkeys on Thanksgiving?"

When an actual journalist was somehow heard and began to ask Tyson if
he was "sorry," promoter Don King seized the dais. "Sorry?!" shrieked
King. "Sorry for what?! What are you talking about?! C'mon, man!"

Moments later Tyson was asked if he would denounce violence against
women, and again one of his handlers handled the inquiry. "He doesn't
have to!" said John Home, a Tyson confidant. "I won't sit here and let
you disrespect him like that!"

There would be no act of contrition. Tyson left to spread charity
checks totaling roughly $1 million around Harlem before arriving by
limousine in front of the historic Apollo Theater, the centerpiece of
what one pro-Tyson speaker called "the most famous black community in
the world."

Harlem salutes Mike Tyson & Don King read the banner on the makeshift
stage set up in the street, where over 500 spectators--"so desperate
for heroes," as one Harlemite put it--waited for two hours in the 95°
heat for a few words from Tyson. But first, there were filibustery
speeches: some praying for Tyson's redemption, many stating that he
was railroaded in the rape trial and a few frighteningly implying
that, all things considered, rape is a relatively unserious
transgression. "Remember the lady who drove her two children into the
river in South Carolina?" asked the Reverend William Crockett. "Mike
Tyson didn't do that. Remember Timothy McVeigh, who blew up the
building in Oklahoma City? Mike Tyson didn't do that. Remember Jeffrey
Dahmer, who ate the people and put them in the refrigerator? Mike
Tyson didn't do that."

In short, Mike Tyson is no manslaughterer. Though Don King is. Does it
matter? Both men did their time. But do an athlete's actions outside
the arena diminish his greatness in it? "Like Picasso," says Camille
Paglia, a self-described dissident feminist and author who is
decidedly in Tyson's corner. "Because he was mean to his girlfriend,
he was not a great artist?" Of course he was.

So, say Mike Tyson remains a great artist inside the ring. Should you
root for him?



1 2 3 4 5


TOP OF STORYSI VAULT HOME

Past Perfect Rebounding from their first losses, Miguel Cotto and
Kelly Pavlik proved that being unbeaten... - 三月 02, 2009
Let's Get Ready to Bungle LAST SATURDAY'S WBA heavyweight title fight
in Zurich between Nikolay Valuev and Evander... - 十二月 29, 2008
Heavy Waits and his brother, , between them hold three pieces of the
heavyweight crown, but it will be a... - 十二月 15, 2008

ARTICLES GALLERIES VIDEO COVERS
Boxing 2083 36 1000 82
Mike Tyson 352 14 1000 11
Don King 184 1 364 1
Harlem 11 0 1000 0


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Second Chance
Steve Rushin
七月 03, 1995
Mike Tyson deserves one in the ring, but whether he again merits the
public's esteem is another matter
七月 03, 1995
Second Chance
Mike Tyson deserves one in the ring, but whether he again merits the
public's esteem is another matter
Steve Rushin, Sonja Steptoe


PRINT EMAIL MOST POPULAR SHARE

1 2 3 4 5


Some of Tyson's backers say he has nothing to apologize for, arguing
instead that he was a victim of a judicial system that continually
comes down hardest on black men. "I know him well, and I believe he
was falsely accused and convicted, and the community believes that as
well," says Russell Simmons, CEO of Def Jam records. Just as some rap
lyrics express young African-Americans' rage and frustration, Simmons
says, Tyson represents their hopes. "The gangsta rappers say things in
their songs all the time about how they'd much prefer to have an
education, but that isn't an alternative. Today young black kids have
no opportunities. They used to have affirmative action, now there's
little hope. Mike Tyson presents a powerful image of a young black kid
who took street smarts, determination and hard work and built his own
industry. He represents hope."

"Mike is trying," says Muhammad Siddeeq, Tyson's spiritual adviser and
tutor in prison. "Mike is moving in a positive direction. He's been to
jail. He's paid a price. He hasn't reached angelic status, but he's
moving in the right direction.

"What more can society ask of a man?"

"What are we asking of Mike Tyson?" echoes Williams. "Do you want him
never to box again? Do you want him to pay more for his crimes? Do you
want to give him a chance to prove the naysayers wrong? Do you want
him to just roll up and die? Is there any one thing that will satisfy
all these diverse points of view?"

Is society not fractionally responsible for the care and feeding of
its heroes? At the time of his trial in 1992 Tyson was the most
prominent American figure since Errol Flynn in 1943 to be charged with
a crime as serious as rape. Today, that statement can stand on its
head: In being charged with a serious crime, one becomes famous in
America. Celebrities have always said that fame is a prison. Now it is
literally so.

So we have serial-killer trading cards, love letters mailed to the
brothers Menendez, a welcome-home party for Joey Buttafuocco, and
teens too young to have known him as an athlete applauding fugitive
double-homicide suspect O.J. Simpson as he fled police in slow motion.
Fame has become an inherent moral good. Celebrity and celebrate spring
from the same Latin root.

"We go into neighborhoods as coaches and think we can convince a kid
that 'son, if you get educated, you'll go to college, have a good job,
a car,' " says Chaney. "That's bull. We don't understand that as he
looks out of his eyes and sees Mike Tyson and others like him as
heroes, he feels everything is instant. He thinks, I can gain a
lifestyle without waiting 10, 15 years. It's easier to go out and
commit a crime."

Thirty-three years ago felonious fighter Sonny Liston was an unpopular
heavyweight champion. Gangstas were not heroes to youngstas, as they
are today. Should a society that glorifies the culture of violence--
indeed, which sees no oxymoron in that phrase--really have a problem
pulling for Tyson, a man whose brutality (in the ring) is his most
praiseworthy quality?

You might suggest that this magazine sure hopes not, for Tyson--"the
former champ"--stars in the videotape currently given "free...with your
paid subscription to SPORTS ILLUSTRATED."

Get into it. Athletes now come Scotchguarded against scandal. "They
come back and participate and are accepted as heroes," says Chaney. "I
find that to be very dangerous. It goes back to the old saying, 'Bad
publicity is better than no publicity.' "



1 2 3 4 5


TOP OF STORYSI VAULT HOME

Past Perfect Rebounding from their first losses, Miguel Cotto and
Kelly Pavlik proved that being unbeaten... - 三月 02, 2009
Let's Get Ready to Bungle LAST SATURDAY'S WBA heavyweight title fight
in Zurich between Nikolay Valuev and Evander... - 十二月 29, 2008
Heavy Waits and his brother, , between them hold three pieces of the
heavyweight crown, but it will be a... - 十二月 15, 2008

ARTICLES GALLERIES VIDEO COVERS
Boxing 2083 36 82
Mike Tyson 352 14 11
Don King 184 1 1
Harlem 11 0 0


GALLERIES
Boxing (36)
COVERS
Boxing (82)



Stories
How (and Why) Athletes Go Broke
Recession or no recession, many NFL, NBA and Major League Baseball
players have a penchant for losing most or all of their money. It
doesn't...
PABLO S. TORRE | March 23, 2009
Flat-out Perfect
Four hypercompetitive senior roommates lifted Connecticut to the NCAA
women's title--and a place in history
Kelli Anderson | April 08, 2002
The Catch-All
Undrafted out of college, dumped by the Chargers and given away by the
Dolphins, Wes Welker has been the Patriots' sure thing
Damon Hack | February 04, 2008
Galleries

Michael Jordan's Hall of Fame Career
Vault Gallery: Iconic UNC Pictures

Topics
1 Sports

2 Football

3 Baseball

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HK$44.99



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Stories
Kelli Anderson: Is this the greatest UConn squad ever? Let the debate
begin
Overpowering Huskies rout Louisville to snag sixth championship
Don Banks: Wes Welker watch list
Writers
Tom Verducci: Hamels, Lincecum headline young pitchers at risk of Year
After Effect
Peter King: Ten nuggets on the NFL draft
Michael Bamberger: To this coach, kids' sports are a matter of life
and Green Death
SI Photos

NCAA Women's Title Game
College Superfans




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1 2 3 4 5


But of course. The day before Tyson's tour of Harlem, the Bronx
Bombers signed tax cheat, drug abuser and woman-beater Darryl
Strawberry to a three-month, $850,000 contract, a move so myopic that
it was immediately denounced by Dr. Brown. Not former American League
president Dr. Bobby Brown, mind you (though he might have pointed to
Strawberry's near total decline as a ballplayer), but by federal drug
czar Dr. Lee Brown, who said the New York Yankees "are sending the
worst possible message to the youth of America: that if you use drugs,
you can be rewarded with big money in big-time sports." Ask
Strawberry's teammate Steve Howe, the man in the Stain-Master cloak,
still unsullied in the eyes of at least one baseball owner after seven
drug-related suspensions.

By contrast, Tyson merely requires a second chance. And no one would
deny him his right to earn a living. What Tyson is not entitled to,
says Goodman, is renewed renown. "Why is he treated more as if he were
Michael Jordan than Mike Tyson?" she wonders. "Because he can bring in
the bucks, that's why."

Bring in the bucks. If they do that in this culture, Iron Mike is
eternally Teflon-coated and Strawberry fields forever.

"It's fine to make a buck with Tyson," says HBO Sports boss Seth
Abraham, whose network lost to Showtime in the sweepstakes to televise
Tyson's fights over the next three years. "That doesn't trouble me. He
went to prison and served his time."

You've heard the phrase "Time is money"? Tyson may have earned only 65
cents a day while sweeping the gym in the joint, but his was an
interest-bearing sentence. He became a much hotter boxer in the
cooler. When Tyson entered prison, his career's parabola was on a
noticeable decline. In the 25 months following his stunning loss to
Buster Douglas in Tokyo, Tyson launched a comeback in which he had
four wins against waning contenders, the last of which was a 12-round
decision against Razor Ruddock. In the four years since then he has
thrown no punches that we know of. Ergo....

"We think Tyson is the hottest commodity in boxing," says Tom Bruny,
director of public relations and advertising for the MGM Grand in Las
Vegas, which will host Tyson's next six fights, pay him $36 million
and still need a craps rake to pull in the profits. No wonder the MGM
Grand has commissioned a 48-foot portrait of Tyson to put on a
rotating cube outside. And you know what? Most fight fans will tell
you the image is life-sized.

"He was always a towering giant in the heavyweight ranks," says one
boxing buff. "You've seen him in the ring. He's thunder and
lightning." (Forgive Tyson if he fails to phone the florist: The
speaker is Garrison.)

The point is, few will resist watching when Tyson returns to the ring
on Aug. 19 to tenderize a side of beef named Peter McNeeley. "I'm not
asking him to change the world, to do more time or send me a few bucks
for my personal pain or to sign an autograph or talk to my kids," says
Williams. "I want to see Mike Tyson come out of his corner with that
look in his eyes and his gloves up near his jaw."

Why not? "Hate the sin, love the sinner," is an admirable chestnut of
Judeo-Christian teaching. Surely you can separate Tyson the fighter
from Tyson the felon, cheering the former and condemning the latter.
"I think Mike Tyson, like all of us, is an imperfect human being,"
says Congressman Richardson. "We should like the good side and dislike
the bad side. You don't have to love him all the time or hate him all
the time. The human being in me wants him to show humility and
contrition. But would I pay to see him fight? Yes."

On the other hand, "some rise by sin, and some by virtue fall," wrote
Shakespeare. So does that make Tyson an indivisible entity: By
elevating the fighter, are you endorsing the felon? "Saying you
separate Tyson the man from Tyson the boxer is saying, I don't care
about his raping Desiree Washington; all I care about is whether he
beats Peter McNeeley," says Goodman. "Frankly, people who buy Showtime
pay-per-view are supporting him and supporting the notion that you can
get away with anything."

1 2 3 4 5


The Tyson-McNeeley fight will go for $50 a throw on pay-per-view. The
MGM Grand is already a near sellout. And speaking of sellouts, King
noted last week that in marketing Tyson he is using "every available
means of exploitation."

To see Tyson on that stage in Harlem was to know that King hadn't
misspoken. The fright-haired promoter was introducing Tyson to his
impatient public when the Reverend Al Sharpton, the New York political
opportunist, stepped forward. He was supposed to introduce Tyson. King
acquiesced, and Sharpton did the honors, joining the chorus of those
likening Tyson to the Prodigal Son. "Bring forth the fatted calf,"
said Sharpton.

As Tyson stepped to the microphone, that's exactly what he looked
like. The fatted calf.


1 2 3 4 5
mrliu918
2009-04-17 08:23:40 UTC
Permalink
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a
choice! You certainly can learn how to make SU-35 from Russia.


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_in_Russia

Scholarship applications for Wikimania 2009 are now open. Apply now!
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[Help us with translations!]

List of institutions of higher learning in Russia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of universities and other higher educational
institutions in Russia:

Contents [hide]
1 Higher educational institutions
2 Higher education in Siberia
3 See also
4 Links



[edit] Higher educational institutions
Academic Law University of the of the Institute of State and Law of
the Russian Academy of Sciences
Academy of State Fire-Prevention Service of the MIA of Russia
Academy of the National Economy attached to the Government of RF
Adygeysky State University
All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade
All-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry
Altai State Technical University
Altai State University
Altai State Medical University
Arkhangelsk State Technical University (1925)
Astrakhan State Technical University
Astrakhan State University, former Astrakhan State Pedagogical
University
Baltic Institute of Economics and Finance
Baltic State Technical University
Barnaul State Pedagogical University
Bashkir State University (1957)
Bauman Kazan State Academy of Veterinary Medicine
Bauman Moscow State Technical University (aka Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Belgorod State Technological Academy of Construction Materials
Belgorod State University
Biysk Pedagogical State University (1939)
Biysk Technological Institute
Branch of Chelyabinsk State University
Branch of Russian University of People Friendship
Branch of Samara State Technical University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Buryat State University
Chaykovsky Moscow State Conservatory
Chelyabinsk State University
Chelyabinsk State University of Agriculture and Engineering
Cherepovettz State University
Chernyshevsky Saratov State University
Chita State University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Chuvashsky State University
Dobrolubov Nizhnegorodsky State Linguistic University
Don State Technical University
Dubna International University of Nature, Society, and Human
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Essentuky Institute of Management, Business, and Law
European University at St Petersburg (ЕУСПб), St Petersburg (1996)
Far Eastern State Academy of Economics and Management
Far Eastern National University (1956), successor of Oriental
Institute in Vladivostok
Far Eastern State Technical Fishing University
Far Eastern State Technical University
Far Eastern State University of Communication
Finance Academy attached to the Government of RF
Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Glinka Voronezh State Agricultural University
Gnessin State Musical College Moscow
Gorky Literature Institute
Hertzen Russian State Pedagogical University
Hetagurov Northern Osetinsky State University
Higher School of Economics
Higher School of Religion and Philosophy
Higher Academic School of Graphic Design
Institute of Cryptography, Communication, and informatics by the
Academy of FSS of Russia
Institute of Topical Education “UrInfo-MSU”
International Academy of Business and Banking
International Academy of Business and New Technologies
International Institute of Economics and Law
International University in Moscow
International University of Fundamental Studies
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics (Irkutsk Economics Academy)
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Ivanovo State Power University
Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology
Izhevsk State Technical University
Kaliningrad State University
Kalmytzky State University
Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Kant Russian State University (1967), former Kaliningrad State
University, indirect successor to the Albertina University of
Königsberg (founded 1544)
Karelsky State Pedagogical University
Katanov Hakassky State University
Kazan Institute of Finance and Economics
Kazan Medical University
Kazan State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Kazan State Academy of Culture and Art
Kazan State Conservatory
Kazan State Power Engineering University (1968)
Kazan State Technical University
Kazan State University (1804)
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Khabarovsk State Technical University
Kolomna State Pedagogical University ru
Korolev Samara State Aerospace University
Kostroma State Technological University
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuban State Technological University
Kuban State University (1970)
Kursk State Technical University
Kursk State Medical University
Kuzbass State Technical University (1950)
Kuzbass State University
Lipetzk State Technical University
Lobachevsky Nizhegorodsky State University
Lomonosov Pomorsky State University
Maimonid State Classical Academy
Magnitogorsk State Conservatory
Magnitogorsk State Pedagogical Institute
MAMI Moscow State Technical University
Marysky State Technical University
Marysky State University
MATI Russian State Technological University
Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology
Military – Technical University of the Federal Service of Specialized
Construction of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Air Defence Forces of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Communication
Military Academy of Supreme Staff
Missile Forces Military Academy named after Peter the Great
Mordovsky State University
Moscow Academy for Tourism, Hotel and Catering Business
Moscow Academy of Government and Municipal Management
Moscow Agricultural Academy
Moscow Architectural Institute
Moscow Aviation Institute (State Technical University)
Moscow City Pedagogical University
Moscow City Psycho – Pedagogical Institute
Moscow Conservatory
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute
Moscow Institute of Economics, Management, and Law
Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology (Technical University)
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow Medical Academy
Moscow Pedagogical University
Moscow Power Engineering Institute
Moscow State Academic School of 1905 Year Memory
Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology
Moscow State Academy of Instrument-Making Informatics
Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology WWW.MGAVM.RU
Moscow State Aviation Technological University (MATI)
Moscow State Construction University
Moscow State Geological Prospecting Academy
Moscow State Industrial University
Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics
Moscow State Institute of International Relations
Moscow State Institute of Motorcars and Roads
Moscow State Institute of Physics and Engineering (Technical
University)
Moscow State Institute of Radio-engineering Electronics and
Automation
Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow State Law Academy
Moscow State Linguistic University
Moscow State Mining University
Moscow State Night Metallurgical Institute
Moscow State Open University
Moscow State Social University
Moscow State Technical University (aka Bauman Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation
Moscow State Textile University (aka Kosygin Moscow State Technical
University) (1930)
Moscow State University (1755)
Moscow State University of Agriculture Engineering
Moscow State University of Applied Biotechnology
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
Moscow State University of Commerce
Moscow State University of Communication
Moscow State University of Culture and Arts
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics
Moscow State University of Environment Organization
Moscow State University of Food Productions
Moscow State University of Forestry
Moscow State University of Printing
Moscow State University of Railway Engineering
Moscow State University of Service
Moscow State University of Technology "Stankin"
Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics
Moscow University for the Humanities (1944)
Moscow University of Consumer Cooperation
Moscow University of Geodesy and Cartography
Murmansk State Technical University
Nekrasov Kostroma State University
Nizhegorodsky State Pedagogical University
Nizhegorodsky State Technical University
Nizhnegorodskaya State Medical Academy
Nizhnevartovsk State University for the Humanities
Nizhny Novgorod Commercial Institute
Nizhny Novgorod State University (1918)
Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Northern Caucasian State Technical University
Northwestern Academy of Public Service
Northern International University
Northern State Medical University (Arhangelsk State Medical
University)
Novgorod State University
Novosibirsk State Agricultural University
Novosibirsk State University (1959)
Novosibirsk State Technical University (1950)
Obninsk State Technical University for Nuclear Power Engineering
(1953), successor of Obninsk Institute for Nuclear Power Engineering
Omsk State Technical University (1942)
Omsk Academy of Law
Omsk Medical Academy
Omsk Road-Transport Academy
Omsk State Transport University (1961)
Omsk State Agrarian University (1918) (connected with Omsk State
Veterinary Institute and Institute of Agribusiness and Continuing
Education)
Omsk State Pedagogical University
Omsk State University (1974)
Omsk University of Consumer Service Technology
Omsk University of Physical Culture
Orel State Technical University
Orel State University
Oriental Institute (1899) (in Vladivostok)
Orenburg Institute of Moscow State Law Academy
Orenburg State Pedagogical University
Orenburg State University (1955)
Pavlov St. Petersburg State Medical University
Penza Institute of Technology – Branch of Penza State University
Penza State Technical University
Penza State University
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (1960)
Perm State Technical University
Perm State University (1916)
Perm State Teachers' Training University (1919)
Perm State Medical Academy
Perm State Pharmaceutical Academy
Perm State Agricultural Academy
The Perm State Institute of Art and Culture
Perm branch of Higher school of economics
Petersburg State University of Communication
Petrozavodsk State University
Plekhanov Russian Academy of Economics
Polzunov Altay State Technical University
Prof. Bonch-Bruevich St. Petersburg State University of
Telecommunications
Prof. Ivanov Kursk State Agricultural Academy
Puschino State University
Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University
Rostov State Academy of Architecture and Art
Rostov State Economics University
Rostov State University(1915), successor to the Warsaw Russian
University (founded 1869)
Rostov State University of Communication
Rubtzovsk Industrial Institute
Russian Academy of Public Service attached to the President of RF
Russian Palaeoentomological School (1980)
Russian State Humanitarian University
Russian State Medical University
Russian State Social University
Russian State University of Hydrometeorology
Russian State University of Innovation Technologies and
Entrepreneurship
Russian State University for the Humanities (РГГУ), Moscow (1991)
Russian University of Peoples Friendship
Ryazan State Pedagogical University
Ryazan State Radio Engineering University
Saint Petersburg Institute of Trade and Economics
Saint Petersburg State Academy of Chemistry and Pharmacology
Saint Petersburg State Agrarian University [1]
Saint Petersburg State Conservatory (1862)
Saint Petersburg State Electrotechnical University (1886)
Saint Petersburg State Institute of Fine Mechanics and Optics
St. Petersburg State Medical Academy
Saint Petersburg State Pediatric Medical Academy (1925)
Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University (1899)
Saint Petersburg State Technological Institute (1828)
Saint Petersburg State University (1819) (successor to Saint
Petersburg Academy, founded 1724)
Saint Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation
Saint-Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Saint Petersburg State University of Culture and Arts
Saint Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance (1930)
Saint Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics
Saint Petersburg State University of Information Technologies,
Mechanics and Optics
Saint Petersburg State University of Low Temperature and Food
Technologies
Saint Petersburg State University of Sea and Technology
Saint Petersburg State University of Water Communications
Sakhalin State University
Samara State Aerospace University
Samara State Technical University
Samara State University
Samara State University of Teacher Training
Saratov State Academy of Law
Saratov State Medical University
Saratov State Technical University
Saratov State University (1909)
Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy
Sergo Ordzhonikidze State University of Management
Seversk State Technological Academy
Shahty Institute – branch of South Russian State Technical University
Sholokhov Moscow State University for Humanities
Siberian Academy of Public Service
Siberian Federal University
Siberian State Aerospace University (Russian abbreviation is SibGAU)
(1960)
Siberian State Academy of Motorcars and Roads
Siberian State Industrial University
Siberian State Medical University (1888)
Siberian State Technological University (Russian abbreviation is
SibGTU), the oldest in the city, founded in 1930 as the Siberian
Institute of Forest)
Siberian State University of Communication
Siberian State University of Telecommunication and Information
Sciences
Siberian University of Small Business
Siberian State University of Communication
Smolensk Humanitarian University
Smolny College
Smolny University
South Russian State Technical University
South Ural State University (1943)
Stankin Moscow State Technical University
State Academy of Natural Gas and Oil
State University – Higher School of Economics
State University of Management
Stavropol State University
Stroganov Moscow Arts and Industrial Institute
Sukachev Institute of Forest (1944)
Surikov Moscow State Academic Art Institute
Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute
Taganrog State University of Radio Technology
Tambov State Technical University
Tolstoy Tula State Pedagogical University
Tomsk Polytechnic University (1896)
Tomsk State Pedagogical University (1902)
Tomsk State University (1878)
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building (1952)
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (1962)
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1811)
Tula State University
Tver State Medical Academy
Tver State University
Tyumen State Oil and Gas University
Tyumen State Agricultural Academy
Tyumen State University
Tziolkovsky Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Udmurdsky State University
Udmurt State University
Ufa State Technical University of Aviation
Ufa State Technical University of Oil
Uhta State Technical University
Ulyanovsk State Agricultural Academy
Ulyanovsk State Technical University
Ulyanovsk State University
Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University
Urals Academy of Architecture
Ural State Academy of Communications
Urals State Academy of Law
Ural State Academy of Mining and Geology
Ural State Economics University
Ural State Forestry Engineering Academy
Ural State Pedagogical University
Ural State Technical University (1920)
Ural State University (1920)
Vladimir State University
Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service (1967)
Voenmeh Baltic State Technical University
Volgograd State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Volgograd State Pedagogical University
Volgograd State Technical University
Volgograd State University
Vologodsky State Pedagogical University
Vologodsky State Technical University
Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering
Voronezh State Academy of Technology
Voronezh State Agricultural University
Voronezh Economics and Law Institute
Voronezh State Medical Academy
Voronezh State Pedagogical University
Voronezh State Technical University
Voronezh State University (1918), successor to the University of
Dorpat (founded 1802 or 1632)
Vyatsky State Pedagogical University
World Technological University
Yakutsk State University (1956)
Yaroslavl State Pedogogical University
Yaroslavl State Technical University
Yaroslavl Demidov State University (1918), successor to the Demidov
Lyceum (founded 1803)
Zabaykalsky State Pedagogical University

[edit] Higher education in Siberia
Abakan State Institute of Education
Abakan State University of Pedagogy
Amur State University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Chita State Technical University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Far Eastern State University (1899)
Irkutsk Institute of Railway Engineering
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture (Irkutsk Institute of
Agriculture)
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Khakass Technical Institute
Kemerovo Agricultural Institute
Kemerovo Art Academy
Kemerovo Medical Academy
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuzbass State Technical University
Kuzbass State University
Novosibirsk State Agricultural University
Novosibirsk State University (1959)
Novosibirsk State Technical University (1950)
Omsk State Technical University (1942)
Omsk Academy of Law
Omsk Medical Academy
Omsk Road-Transport Academy
Omsk State Transport University (1961)
Omsk State Agrarian University (1918) (connected with Omsk State
Veterinary Institute and Institute of Agribusiness and Continuing
Education)
Omsk State Pedagogical University
Omsk State University (1974)
Omsk University of Consumer Service Technology
Omsk University of Physical Culture
Siberian Academy of Public Service
Siberian State Aerospace University (Russian abbreviation is SibGAU)
(1960)
Siberian State Academy of Motorcars and Roads
Siberian State Industrial University
Siberian State Medical University (1888)
Siberian State Technological University (Russian abbreviation is
SibGTU), the oldest in the city, founded in 1930 as the Siberian
Institute of Forest)
Siberian State University of Communication
Siberian State University of Telecommunication and Information
Sciences
Siberian University of Small Business
South Ural State University (1943)
Sukachev Institute of Forest (1944)
Tomsk Polytechnic University (1896)
Tomsk State Pedagogical University (1902)
Tomsk State University (1878) (First university in Siberia)
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building (1952)
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (1962)
Tuvan Institute of Humanitarian Research
Tuvan State University
Tyumen State Oil and Gas University
Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service (1967)
Yakutsk State University (1956)
Ryazan State Radio Engineering University

[edit] See also
Education in Russia
Education in Siberia
Education in the Soviet Union (Historical)

[edit] Links
[http://www.unesco.org/iau/onlinedatabases/list_data/qr-
nw.html#Russian_Federation List of institutions in the Russia
Federation (these institutions ARE NOT recognised by IAU or UNESCO -
IAU gathers information on higher education around the world from the
national competent bodies and makes it available.)
List of Russian schools
100 Best Schools In Russia
Russian Universities Webometrics Ranking
[show]v • d • eList of universities in Asia

Sovereign
states Afghanistan · Armenia1 · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh ·
Bhutan · Brunei · Burma2 · Cambodia · People's Republic of China ·
Cyprus1 · East Timor3 · Egypt4 · Georgia4 · India · Indonesia · Iran ·
Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan4 · North Korea · South
Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives ·
Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia4 ·
Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Republic
of China5 · Thailand · Turkey4 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates ·
Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen


Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Aceh · Adjara1 · Abkhazia1 · Akrotiri and Dhekelia ·
Altai · British Indian Ocean Territory · Buryatia · Christmas Island ·
Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Inner Mongolia · Iraqi
Kurdistan · Jakarta · Khakassia · Macau · Nagorno-Karabakh ·
Nakhchivan · Ningxia · Northern Cyprus · Palestine (Gaza Strip · West
Bank) · Papua · Sakha · South Ossetia1 · Tibet · Tuva · West Papua ·
Xinjiang · Yogyakarta


Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1
Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions. 2
Officially known as Myanmar. 3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and
also known as Timor-Leste. 4 Transcontinental country. 5 Commonly
known as Taiwan.

[show]v • d • eList of universities in Europe

Sovereign
states Albania · Andorra · Armenia1 · Austria · Azerbaijan2 · Belarus
· Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus1 ·
Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland · France · Georgia2 ·
Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Kazakhstan3 ·
Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Republic of
Macedonia · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands ·
Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia3 · San Marino · Serbia ·
Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey3 · Ukraine
· United Kingdom (England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales) ·
Vatican City


Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Abkhazia 2 · Adjara1 · Adygea · Akrotiri and
Dhekelia · Åland · Azores · Bashkortostan · Catalonia · Chechnya ·
Chuvashia · Crimea · Dagestan · Faroe Islands · Gagauzia · Gibraltar ·
Guernsey · Ingushetia · Jan Mayen · Jersey · Kabardino-Balkaria ·
Kalmykia · Karachay-Cherkessia · Republic of Karelia · Komi Republic ·
Kosovo · Madeira · Isle of Man · Mari El · Mordovia · Nagorno-
Karabakh1 · Nakhchivan1 · North Ossetia-Alania · Northern Cyprus1 ·
South Ossetia 2 · Svalbard · Tatarstan · Transnistria · Udmurtia ·
Vojvodina


Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country. 1
Entirely in Asia, but historically considered European. 2 Partially
or entirely in Asia, depending on the border definitions. 3
Transcontinental country.


Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_in_Russia"
Categories: Russian culture | Science and technology in Russia |
Universities and colleges in Russia | Universities and colleges in
Siberia | Lists of universities and colleges | Education in Russia
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rst0wxyz
2009-04-23 17:09:01 UTC
Permalink
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC. Re: List
of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a choice!
Post by mrliu918
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a
choice! You certainly can learn how to make SU-35 from Russia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_...
Scholarship applications for Wikimania 2009 are now open. Apply now!
[Hide]
[Help us with translations!]
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of universities and other higher educational
Contents [hide]
1 Higher educational institutions
2 Higher education in Siberia
3 See also
4 Links
[edit] Higher educational institutions
Academic Law University of the of the Institute of State and Law of
the Russian Academy of Sciences
Academy of State Fire-Prevention Service of the MIA of Russia
Academy of the National Economy attached to the Government of RF
Adygeysky State University
All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade
All-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry
Altai State Technical University
Altai State University
Altai State Medical University
Arkhangelsk State Technical University (1925)
Astrakhan State Technical University
Astrakhan State University, former Astrakhan State Pedagogical
University
Baltic Institute of Economics and Finance
Baltic State Technical University
Barnaul State Pedagogical University
Bashkir State University (1957)
Bauman Kazan State Academy of Veterinary Medicine
Bauman Moscow State Technical University (aka Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Belgorod State Technological Academy of Construction Materials
Belgorod State University
Biysk Pedagogical State University (1939)
Biysk Technological Institute
Branch of Chelyabinsk State University
Branch of Russian University of People Friendship
Branch of Samara State Technical University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Buryat State University
Chaykovsky Moscow State Conservatory
Chelyabinsk State University
Chelyabinsk State University of Agriculture and Engineering
Cherepovettz State University
Chernyshevsky Saratov State University
Chita State University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Chuvashsky State University
Dobrolubov Nizhnegorodsky State Linguistic University
Don State Technical University
Dubna International University of Nature, Society, and Human
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Essentuky Institute of Management, Business, and Law
European University at St Petersburg (ЕУСПб), St Petersburg (1996)
Far Eastern State Academy of Economics and Management
Far Eastern National University (1956), successor of Oriental
Institute in Vladivostok
Far Eastern State Technical Fishing University
Far Eastern State Technical University
Far Eastern State University of Communication
Finance Academy attached to the Government of RF
Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Glinka Voronezh State Agricultural University
Gnessin State Musical College Moscow
Gorky Literature Institute
Hertzen Russian State Pedagogical University
Hetagurov Northern Osetinsky State University
Higher School of Economics
Higher School of Religion and Philosophy
Higher Academic School of Graphic Design
Institute of Cryptography, Communication, and informatics by the
Academy of FSS of Russia
Institute of Topical Education “UrInfo-MSU”
International Academy of Business and Banking
International Academy of Business and New Technologies
International Institute of Economics and Law
International University in Moscow
International University of Fundamental Studies
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics (Irkutsk Economics Academy)
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Ivanovo State Power University
Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology
Izhevsk State Technical University
Kaliningrad State University
Kalmytzky State University
Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Kant Russian State University (1967), former Kaliningrad State
University, indirect successor to the Albertina University of
Königsberg (founded 1544)
Karelsky State Pedagogical University
Katanov Hakassky State University
Kazan Institute of Finance and Economics
Kazan Medical University
Kazan State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Kazan State Academy of Culture and Art
Kazan State Conservatory
Kazan State Power Engineering University (1968)
Kazan State Technical University
Kazan State University (1804)
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Khabarovsk State Technical University
Kolomna State Pedagogical University ru
Korolev Samara State Aerospace University
Kostroma State Technological University
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuban State Technological University
Kuban State University (1970)
Kursk State Technical University
Kursk State Medical University
Kuzbass State Technical University (1950)
Kuzbass State University
Lipetzk State Technical University
Lobachevsky Nizhegorodsky State University
Lomonosov Pomorsky State University
Maimonid State Classical Academy
Magnitogorsk State Conservatory
Magnitogorsk State Pedagogical Institute
MAMI Moscow State Technical University
Marysky State Technical University
Marysky State University
MATI Russian State Technological University
Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology
Military – Technical University of the Federal Service of Specialized
Construction of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Air Defence Forces of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Communication
Military Academy of Supreme Staff
Missile Forces Military Academy named after Peter the Great
Mordovsky State University
Moscow Academy for Tourism, Hotel and Catering Business
Moscow Academy of Government and Municipal Management
Moscow Agricultural Academy
Moscow Architectural Institute
Moscow Aviation Institute (State Technical University)
Moscow City Pedagogical University
Moscow City Psycho – Pedagogical Institute
Moscow Conservatory
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute
Moscow Institute of Economics, Management, and Law
Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology (Technical University)
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow Medical Academy
Moscow Pedagogical University
Moscow Power Engineering Institute
Moscow State Academic School of 1905 Year Memory
Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology
Moscow State Academy of Instrument-Making Informatics
Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology WWW.MGAVM.RU
Moscow State Aviation Technological University (MATI)
Moscow State Construction University
Moscow State Geological Prospecting Academy
Moscow State Industrial University
Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics
Moscow State Institute of International Relations
Moscow State Institute of Motorcars and Roads
Moscow State Institute of Physics and Engineering (Technical
University)
Moscow State Institute of Radio-engineering Electronics and
Automation
Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow State Law Academy
Moscow State Linguistic University
Moscow State Mining University
Moscow State Night Metallurgical Institute
Moscow State Open University
Moscow State Social University
Moscow State Technical University (aka Bauman Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation
Moscow State Textile University (aka Kosygin Moscow State Technical
University) (1930)
Moscow State University (1755)
Moscow State University of Agriculture Engineering
Moscow State University of Applied Biotechnology
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
Moscow State University of Commerce
Moscow State University of Communication
Moscow State University of Culture and Arts
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics
Moscow State University of Environment Organization
Moscow State University of Food Productions
Moscow State University of Forestry
Moscow State University of Printing
Moscow State University of Railway Engineering
Moscow State University of Service
Moscow State University of Technology "Stankin"
Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics
Moscow University for the Humanities (1944)
Moscow University of Consumer Cooperation
Moscow University of Geodesy and Cartography
Murmansk State Technical University
Nekrasov Kostroma State University
Nizhegorodsky State Pedagogical University
Nizhegorodsky State Technical University
Nizhnegorodskaya State Medical Academy
Nizhnevartovsk State University for the Humanities
Nizhny Novgorod Commercial Institute
Nizhny Novgorod State University (1918)
Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Northern Caucasian State Technical University
Northwestern Academy of Public Service
Northern International University
Northern State Medical University (Arhangelsk State Medical
University)
Novgorod State University
Novosibirsk State Agricultural University
Novosibirsk State University (1959)
Novosibirsk State Technical University (1950)
Obninsk State Technical University for Nuclear Power Engineering
(1953), successor of Obninsk Institute for Nuclear Power Engineering
Omsk State Technical University (1942)
Omsk Academy of Law
Omsk Medical Academy
Omsk Road-Transport Academy
Omsk State Transport University (1961)
Omsk State Agrarian University (1918) (connected with Omsk State
Veterinary Institute and Institute of Agribusiness and Continuing
Education)
Omsk State Pedagogical University
Omsk State University (1974)
Omsk University of Consumer Service Technology
Omsk University of Physical Culture
Orel State Technical University
Orel State University
Oriental Institute (1899) (in Vladivostok)
Orenburg Institute of Moscow State Law Academy
Orenburg State Pedagogical University
Orenburg State University (1955)
Pavlov St. Petersburg State Medical University
Penza Institute of Technology – Branch of Penza State University
Penza State Technical University
Penza State University
Peoples' Friendship University of Russia (1960)
Perm State Technical University
Perm State University (1916)
Perm State Teachers' Training University (1919)
Perm State Medical Academy
Perm State Pharmaceutical Academy
Perm State Agricultural Academy
The Perm State Institute of Art and Culture
Perm branch of Higher school of economics
Petersburg State University of Communication
Petrozavodsk State University
Plekhanov Russian Academy of Economics
Polzunov Altay State Technical University
Prof. Bonch-Bruevich St. Petersburg State University of
Telecommunications
Prof. Ivanov Kursk State Agricultural Academy
Puschino State University
Pyatigorsk State Linguistic University
Rostov State Academy of Architecture and Art
Rostov State Economics University
Rostov State University(1915), successor to the Warsaw Russian
University (founded 1869)
Rostov State University of Communication
Rubtzovsk Industrial Institute
Russian Academy of Public Service attached to the President of RF
Russian Palaeoentomological School (1980)
Russian State Humanitarian University
Russian State Medical University
Russian State Social University
Russian State University of Hydrometeorology
Russian State University of Innovation Technologies and
Entrepreneurship
Russian State University for the Humanities (РГГУ), Moscow (1991)
Russian University of Peoples Friendship
Ryazan State Pedagogical University
Ryazan State Radio Engineering University
Saint Petersburg Institute of Trade and Economics
Saint Petersburg State Academy of Chemistry and Pharmacology
Saint Petersburg State Agrarian University [1]
Saint Petersburg State Conservatory (1862)
Saint Petersburg State Electrotechnical University (1886)
Saint Petersburg State Institute of Fine Mechanics and Optics
St. Petersburg State Medical Academy
Saint Petersburg State Pediatric Medical Academy (1925)
Saint Petersburg State Polytechnical University (1899)
Saint Petersburg State Technological Institute (1828)
Saint Petersburg State University (1819) (successor to Saint
Petersburg Academy, founded 1724)
Saint Petersburg State University of Aerospace Instrumentation
Saint-Petersburg State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Saint Petersburg State University of Culture and Arts
Saint Petersburg State University of Economics and Finance (1930)
Saint Petersburg State University of Engineering and Economics
Saint Petersburg State University of Information Technologies,
Mechanics and Optics
Saint Petersburg State University of Low Temperature and Food
Technologies
Saint Petersburg State University of Sea and Technology
Saint Petersburg State University of Water Communications
Sakhalin State University
Samara State Aerospace University
Samara State Technical University
Samara State University
Samara State University of Teacher Training
Saratov State Academy of Law
Saratov State Medical University
Saratov State Technical University
Saratov State University (1909)
Sechenov Moscow Medical Academy
Sergo Ordzhonikidze State University of Management
Seversk State Technological Academy
Shahty Institute – branch of South Russian State Technical University
Sholokhov Moscow State University for Humanities
Siberian Academy of Public Service
Siberian Federal University
Siberian State Aerospace University (Russian abbreviation is SibGAU)
(1960)
Siberian State Academy of Motorcars and Roads
Siberian State Industrial University
Siberian State Medical University (1888)
Siberian State Technological University (Russian abbreviation is
SibGTU), the oldest in the city, founded in 1930 as the Siberian
Institute of Forest)
Siberian State University of Communication
Siberian State University of Telecommunication and Information
Sciences
Siberian University of Small Business
Siberian State University of Communication
Smolensk Humanitarian University
Smolny College
Smolny University
South Russian State Technical University
South Ural State University (1943)
Stankin Moscow State Technical University
State Academy of Natural Gas and Oil
State University – Higher School of Economics
State University of Management
Stavropol State University
Stroganov Moscow Arts and Industrial Institute
Sukachev Institute of Forest (1944)
Surikov Moscow State Academic Art Institute
Taganrog State Pedagogical Institute
Taganrog State University of Radio Technology
Tambov State Technical University
Tolstoy Tula State Pedagogical University
Tomsk Polytechnic University (1896)
Tomsk State Pedagogical University (1902)
Tomsk State University (1878)
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building (1952)
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (1962)
Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum (1811)
Tula State University
Tver State Medical Academy
Tver State University
Tyumen State Oil and Gas University
Tyumen State Agricultural Academy
Tyumen State University
Tziolkovsky Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Udmurdsky State University
Udmurt State University
Ufa State Technical University of Aviation
Ufa State Technical University of Oil
Uhta State Technical University
Ulyanovsk State Agricultural Academy
Ulyanovsk State Technical University
Ulyanovsk State University
Ulyanovsk State Pedagogical University
Urals Academy of Architecture
Ural State Academy of Communications
Urals State Academy of Law
Ural State Academy of Mining and Geology
Ural State Economics University
Ural State Forestry Engineering Academy
Ural State Pedagogical University
Ural State Technical University (1920)
Ural State University (1920)
Vladimir State University
Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service (1967)
Voenmeh Baltic State Technical University
Volgograd State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Volgograd State Pedagogical University
Volgograd State Technical University
Volgograd State University
Vologodsky State Pedagogical University
Vologodsky State Technical University
Voronezh State Academy of Forestry Engineering
Voronezh State Academy of Technology
Voronezh State Agricultural University
Voronezh Economics and Law Institute
Voronezh State Medical Academy
Voronezh State Pedagogical University
Voronezh State Technical University
Voronezh State University (1918), successor to the University of
Dorpat (founded 1802 or 1632)
Vyatsky State Pedagogical University
World Technological University
Yakutsk State University (1956)
Yaroslavl State Pedogogical University
Yaroslavl State Technical University
Yaroslavl Demidov State University (1918), successor to the Demidov
Lyceum (founded 1803)
Zabaykalsky State Pedagogical University
[edit] Higher education in Siberia
Abakan State Institute of Education
Abakan State University of Pedagogy
Amur State University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Chita State Technical University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Far Eastern State University (1899)
Irkutsk Institute of Railway Engineering
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture (Irkutsk Institute of
Agriculture)
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Khakass Technical Institute
Kemerovo Agricultural Institute
Kemerovo Art Academy
Kemerovo Medical Academy
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuzbass State Technical University
Kuzbass State University
Novosibirsk State Agricultural University
Novosibirsk State University (1959)
Novosibirsk State Technical University (1950)
Omsk State Technical University (1942)
Omsk Academy of Law
Omsk Medical Academy
Omsk Road-Transport Academy
Omsk State Transport University (1961)
Omsk State Agrarian University (1918) (connected with Omsk State
Veterinary Institute and Institute of Agribusiness and Continuing
Education)
Omsk State Pedagogical University
Omsk State University (1974)
Omsk University of Consumer Service Technology
Omsk University of Physical Culture
Siberian Academy of Public Service
Siberian State Aerospace University (Russian abbreviation is SibGAU)
(1960)
Siberian State Academy of Motorcars and Roads
Siberian State Industrial University
Siberian State Medical University (1888)
Siberian State Technological University (Russian abbreviation is
SibGTU), the oldest in the city, founded in 1930 as the Siberian
Institute of Forest)
Siberian State University of Communication
Siberian State University of Telecommunication and Information
Sciences
Siberian University of Small Business
South Ural State University (1943)
Sukachev Institute of Forest (1944)
Tomsk Polytechnic University (1896)
Tomsk State Pedagogical University (1902)
Tomsk State University (1878) (First university in Siberia)
Tomsk State University of Architecture and Building (1952)
Tomsk State University of Control Systems and Radioelectronics (1962)
Tuvan Institute of Humanitarian Research
Tuvan State University
Tyumen State Oil and Gas University
Vladivostok State University of Economics and Service (1967)
Yakutsk State University (1956)
Ryazan State Radio Engineering University
[edit] See also
Education in Russia
Education in Siberia
Education in the Soviet Union (Historical)
[edit] Links
[http://www.unesco.org/iau/onlinedatabases/list_data/qr-
nw.html#Russian_Federation List of institutions in the Russia
Federation (these institutions ARE NOT recognised by IAU or UNESCO -
IAU gathers information on higher education around the world from the
national competent bodies and makes it available.)
List of Russian schools
100 Best Schools In Russia
Russian Universities Webometrics Ranking
[show]v • d • eList of universities in Asia
Sovereign
states Afghanistan · Armenia1 · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh ·
Bhutan · Brunei · Burma2 · Cambodia · People's Republic of China ·
Cyprus1 · East Timor3 · Egypt4 · Georgia4 · India · Indonesia · Iran ·
Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan4 · North Korea · South
Korea · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives ·
Mongolia · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia4 ·
Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Republic
of China5 · Thailand · Turkey4 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates ·
Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Aceh · Adjara1 · Abkhazia1 · Akrotiri and Dhekelia ·
Altai · British Indian Ocean Territory · Buryatia · Christmas Island ·
Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Guangxi · Hong Kong · Inner Mongolia · Iraqi
Kurdistan · Jakarta · Khakassia · Macau · Nagorno-Karabakh ·
Nakhchivan · Ningxia · Northern Cyprus · Palestine (Gaza Strip · West
Bank) · Papua · Sakha · South Ossetia1 · Tibet · Tuva · West Papua ·
Xinjiang · Yogyakarta
Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country.  1
Sometimes included in Europe, depending on the border definitions.  2
Officially known as Myanmar.  3 Sometimes included in Oceania, and
also known as Timor-Leste.  4 Transcontinental country.  5 Commonly
known as Taiwan.
[show]v • d • eList of universities in Europe
Sovereign
states Albania · Andorra · Armenia1 · Austria · Azerbaijan2 · Belarus
· Belgium · Bosnia and Herzegovina · Bulgaria · Croatia · Cyprus1 ·
Czech Republic · Denmark · Estonia · Finland · France · Georgia2 ·
Germany · Greece · Hungary · Iceland · Ireland · Italy · Kazakhstan3 ·
Latvia · Liechtenstein · Lithuania · Luxembourg · Republic of
Macedonia · Malta · Moldova · Monaco · Montenegro · Netherlands ·
Norway · Poland · Portugal · Romania · Russia3 · San Marino · Serbia ·
Slovakia · Slovenia · Spain · Sweden · Switzerland · Turkey3 · Ukraine
· United Kingdom (England • Northern Ireland • Scotland • Wales) ·
Vatican City
Dependencies,
autonomies,
other territories Abkhazia 2 · Adjara1 · Adygea · Akrotiri and
Dhekelia · Åland · Azores · Bashkortostan · Catalonia · Chechnya ·
Chuvashia · Crimea · Dagestan · Faroe Islands · Gagauzia · Gibraltar ·
Guernsey · Ingushetia · Jan Mayen · Jersey · Kabardino-Balkaria ·
Kalmykia · Karachay-Cherkessia · Republic of Karelia · Komi Republic ·
Kosovo · Madeira · Isle of Man · Mari El · Mordovia · Nagorno-
Karabakh1 · Nakhchivan1 · North Ossetia-Alania · Northern Cyprus1 ·
South Ossetia 2 · Svalbard · Tatarstan · Transnistria · Udmurtia ·
Vojvodina
Italics indicates an unrecognised or partially recognised country.  1
Entirely in Asia, but historically considered European.  2 Partially
or entirely in Asia, depending on the border definitions.  3
Transcontinental country.
Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_in_Russia"
Categories: Russian culture | Science and technology in Russia |
Universities and colleges in Russia | Universities and colleges in
Siberia | Lists of universities and colleges | Education in Russia
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Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers
Xangdi
2009-04-23 17:26:38 UTC
Permalink
I knew from the beginning that there was something wrong with
abianchen, because it didn't sound like a man. I thought it was a homo
writing, like RAK, but now we know of course, that it was a woman all
along - an ugly Thai whore.
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.  Re: List
of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a choice!
Post by mrliu918
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a
choice! You certainly can learn how to make SU-35 from Russia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_...
Scholarship applications for Wikimania 2009 are now open. Apply now!
[Hide]
[Help us with translations!]
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of universities and other higher educational
Contents [hide]
1 Higher educational institutions
2 Higher education in Siberia
3 See also
4 Links
[edit] Higher educational institutions
Academic Law University of the of the Institute of State and Law of
the Russian Academy of Sciences
Academy of State Fire-Prevention Service of the MIA of Russia
Academy of the National Economy attached to the Government of RF
Adygeysky State University
All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade
All-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry
Altai State Technical University
Altai State University
Altai State Medical University
Arkhangelsk State Technical University (1925)
Astrakhan State Technical University
Astrakhan State University, former Astrakhan State Pedagogical
University
Baltic Institute of Economics and Finance
Baltic State Technical University
Barnaul State Pedagogical University
Bashkir State University (1957)
Bauman Kazan State Academy of Veterinary Medicine
Bauman Moscow State Technical University (aka Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Belgorod State Technological Academy of Construction Materials
Belgorod State University
Biysk Pedagogical State University (1939)
Biysk Technological Institute
Branch of Chelyabinsk State University
Branch of Russian University of People Friendship
Branch of Samara State Technical University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Buryat State University
Chaykovsky Moscow State Conservatory
Chelyabinsk State University
Chelyabinsk State University of Agriculture and Engineering
Cherepovettz State University
Chernyshevsky Saratov State University
Chita State University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Chuvashsky State University
Dobrolubov Nizhnegorodsky State Linguistic University
Don State Technical University
Dubna International University of Nature, Society, and Human
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Essentuky Institute of Management, Business, and Law
European University at St Petersburg (ЕУСПб), St Petersburg (1996)
Far Eastern State Academy of Economics and Management
Far Eastern National University (1956), successor of Oriental
Institute in Vladivostok
Far Eastern State Technical Fishing University
Far Eastern State Technical University
Far Eastern State University of Communication
Finance Academy attached to the Government of RF
Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Glinka Voronezh State Agricultural University
Gnessin State Musical College Moscow
Gorky Literature Institute
Hertzen Russian State Pedagogical University
Hetagurov Northern Osetinsky State University
Higher School of Economics
Higher School of Religion and Philosophy
Higher Academic School of Graphic Design
Institute of Cryptography, Communication, and informatics by the
Academy of FSS of Russia
Institute of Topical Education “UrInfo-MSU”
International Academy of Business and Banking
International Academy of Business and New Technologies
International Institute of Economics and Law
International University in Moscow
International University of Fundamental Studies
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics (Irkutsk Economics Academy)
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Ivanovo State Power University
Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology
Izhevsk State Technical University
Kaliningrad State University
Kalmytzky State University
Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Kant Russian State University (1967), former Kaliningrad State
University, indirect successor to the Albertina University of
Königsberg (founded 1544)
Karelsky State Pedagogical University
Katanov Hakassky State University
Kazan Institute of Finance and Economics
Kazan Medical University
Kazan State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Kazan State Academy of Culture and Art
Kazan State Conservatory
Kazan State Power Engineering University (1968)
Kazan State Technical University
Kazan State University (1804)
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Khabarovsk State Technical University
Kolomna State Pedagogical University ru
Korolev Samara State Aerospace University
Kostroma State Technological University
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuban State Technological University
Kuban State University (1970)
Kursk State Technical University
Kursk State Medical University
Kuzbass State Technical University (1950)
Kuzbass State University
Lipetzk State Technical University
Lobachevsky Nizhegorodsky State University
Lomonosov Pomorsky State University
Maimonid State Classical Academy
Magnitogorsk State Conservatory
Magnitogorsk State Pedagogical Institute
MAMI Moscow State Technical University
Marysky State Technical University
Marysky State University
MATI Russian State Technological University
Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology
Military – Technical University of the Federal Service of Specialized
Construction of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Air Defence Forces of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Communication
Military Academy of Supreme Staff
Missile Forces Military Academy named after Peter the Great
Mordovsky State University
Moscow Academy for Tourism, Hotel and Catering Business
Moscow Academy of Government and Municipal Management
Moscow Agricultural Academy
Moscow Architectural Institute
Moscow Aviation Institute (State Technical University)
Moscow City Pedagogical University
Moscow City Psycho – Pedagogical Institute
Moscow Conservatory
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute
Moscow Institute of Economics, Management, and Law
Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology (Technical University)
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow Medical Academy
Moscow Pedagogical University
Moscow Power Engineering Institute
Moscow State Academic School of 1905 Year Memory
Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology
Moscow State Academy of Instrument-Making Informatics
Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology WWW.MGAVM.RU
Moscow State Aviation Technological University (MATI)
Moscow State Construction University
Moscow State Geological Prospecting Academy
Moscow State Industrial University
Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics
Moscow State Institute of International Relations
Moscow State Institute of Motorcars and Roads
Moscow State Institute of Physics and Engineering (Technical
University)
Moscow State Institute of Radio-engineering Electronics and
Automation
Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow State Law Academy
Moscow State Linguistic University
Moscow State Mining University
Moscow State Night Metallurgical Institute
Moscow State Open University
Moscow State Social University
Moscow State Technical University (aka Bauman Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation
Moscow State Textile University (aka Kosygin Moscow State Technical
University) (1930)
Moscow State University (1755)
Moscow State University of Agriculture Engineering
Moscow State University of Applied Biotechnology
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
Moscow State University of Commerce
Moscow State University of Communication
Moscow State University of Culture and Arts
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics
Moscow State University of Environment Organization
Moscow State University of Food Productions
Moscow State University of Forestry
Moscow State University of Printing
Moscow State University of Railway Engineering
Moscow State University of Service
Moscow State University of Technology "Stankin"
Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics
Moscow University for the Humanities (1944)
Moscow University of Consumer Cooperation
Moscow University of Geodesy and Cartography
Murmansk State Technical University
Nekrasov Kostroma State University
Nizhegorodsky State Pedagogical University
Nizhegorodsky State Technical University
Nizhnegorodskaya State Medical Academy
Nizhnevartovsk State University for the Humanities
Nizhny Novgorod Commercial Institute
Nizhny Novgorod State University (1918)
Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Northern Caucasian State
...
read more »- Hide quoted text -
- Show quoted text -
y***@gmail.com
2009-05-10 13:25:45 UTC
Permalink
Post by Xangdi
I knew from the beginning that there was something wrong with
abianchen, because it didn't sound like a man. I thought it was a homo
writing, like RAK, but now we know of course, that it was a woman all
along - an ugly Thai whore.
Post by rst0wxyz
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.  Re: List
of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a choice!
Post by mrliu918
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a
choice! You certainly can learn how to make SU-35 from Russia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_...
Scholarship applications for Wikimania 2009 are now open. Apply now!
[Hide]
[Help us with translations!]
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of universities and other higher educational
Contents [hide]
1 Higher educational institutions
2 Higher education in Siberia
3 See also
4 Links
[edit] Higher educational institutions
Academic Law University of the of the Institute of State and Law of
the Russian Academy of Sciences
Academy of State Fire-Prevention Service of the MIA of Russia
Academy of the National Economy attached to the Government of RF
Adygeysky State University
All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade
All-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry
Altai State Technical University
Altai State University
Altai State Medical University
Arkhangelsk State Technical University (1925)
Astrakhan State Technical University
Astrakhan State University, former Astrakhan State Pedagogical
University
Baltic Institute of Economics and Finance
Baltic State Technical University
Barnaul State Pedagogical University
Bashkir State University (1957)
Bauman Kazan State Academy of Veterinary Medicine
Bauman Moscow State Technical University (aka Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Belgorod State Technological Academy of Construction Materials
Belgorod State University
Biysk Pedagogical State University (1939)
Biysk Technological Institute
Branch of Chelyabinsk State University
Branch of Russian University of People Friendship
Branch of Samara State Technical University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Buryat State University
Chaykovsky Moscow State Conservatory
Chelyabinsk State University
Chelyabinsk State University of Agriculture and Engineering
Cherepovettz State University
Chernyshevsky Saratov State University
Chita State University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Chuvashsky State University
Dobrolubov Nizhnegorodsky State Linguistic University
Don State Technical University
Dubna International University of Nature, Society, and Human
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Essentuky Institute of Management, Business, and Law
European University at St Petersburg (ЕУСПб), St Petersburg (1996)
Far Eastern State Academy of Economics and Management
Far Eastern National University (1956), successor of Oriental
Institute in Vladivostok
Far Eastern State Technical Fishing University
Far Eastern State Technical University
Far Eastern State University of Communication
Finance Academy attached to the Government of RF
Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Glinka Voronezh State Agricultural University
Gnessin State Musical College Moscow
Gorky Literature Institute
Hertzen Russian State Pedagogical University
Hetagurov Northern Osetinsky State University
Higher School of Economics
Higher School of Religion and Philosophy
Higher Academic School of Graphic Design
Institute of Cryptography, Communication, and informatics by the
Academy of FSS of Russia
Institute of Topical Education “UrInfo-MSU”
International Academy of Business and Banking
International Academy of Business and New Technologies
International Institute of Economics and Law
International University in Moscow
International University of Fundamental Studies
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics (Irkutsk Economics Academy)
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Ivanovo State Power University
Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology
Izhevsk State Technical University
Kaliningrad State University
Kalmytzky State University
Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Kant Russian State University (1967), former Kaliningrad State
University, indirect successor to the Albertina University of
Königsberg (founded 1544)
Karelsky State Pedagogical University
Katanov Hakassky State University
Kazan Institute of Finance and Economics
Kazan Medical University
Kazan State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Kazan State Academy of Culture and Art
Kazan State Conservatory
Kazan State Power Engineering University (1968)
Kazan State Technical University
Kazan State University (1804)
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Khabarovsk State Technical University
Kolomna State Pedagogical University ru
Korolev Samara State Aerospace University
Kostroma State Technological University
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuban State Technological University
Kuban State University (1970)
Kursk State Technical University
Kursk State Medical University
Kuzbass State Technical University (1950)
Kuzbass State University
Lipetzk State Technical University
Lobachevsky Nizhegorodsky State University
Lomonosov Pomorsky State University
Maimonid State Classical Academy
Magnitogorsk State Conservatory
Magnitogorsk State Pedagogical Institute
MAMI Moscow State Technical University
Marysky State Technical University
Marysky State University
MATI Russian State Technological University
Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology
Military – Technical University of the Federal Service of Specialized
Construction of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Air Defence Forces of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Communication
Military Academy of Supreme Staff
Missile Forces Military Academy named after Peter the Great
Mordovsky State University
Moscow Academy for Tourism, Hotel and Catering Business
Moscow Academy of Government and Municipal Management
Moscow Agricultural Academy
Moscow Architectural Institute
Moscow Aviation Institute (State Technical University)
Moscow City Pedagogical University
Moscow City Psycho – Pedagogical Institute
Moscow Conservatory
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute
Moscow Institute of Economics, Management, and Law
Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology (Technical University)
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow Medical Academy
Moscow Pedagogical University
Moscow Power Engineering Institute
Moscow State Academic School of 1905 Year Memory
Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology
Moscow State Academy of Instrument-Making Informatics
Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology WWW.MGAVM.RU
Moscow State Aviation Technological University (MATI)
Moscow State Construction University
Moscow State Geological Prospecting Academy
Moscow State Industrial University
Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics
Moscow State Institute of International Relations
Moscow State Institute of Motorcars and Roads
Moscow State Institute of Physics and Engineering (Technical
University)
Moscow State Institute of Radio-engineering Electronics and
Automation
Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow State Law Academy
Moscow State Linguistic University
Moscow State Mining University
Moscow State Night Metallurgical Institute
Moscow State Open University
Moscow State Social University
Moscow State Technical University (aka Bauman Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation
Moscow State Textile University (aka Kosygin Moscow State Technical
University) (1930)
Moscow State University (1755)
Moscow State University of Agriculture Engineering
Moscow State University of Applied Biotechnology
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
Moscow State University of Commerce
Moscow State University of Communication
Moscow State University of Culture and Arts
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics
Moscow State University of Environment Organization
Moscow State University of Food Productions
Moscow State University of Forestry
Moscow State University of Printing
Moscow State University of Railway Engineering
Moscow State University of Service
Moscow State University of Technology "Stankin"
Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics
Moscow University for the Humanities (1944)
Moscow University of Consumer Cooperation
Moscow University of Geodesy and Cartography
Murmansk State Technical University
Nekrasov Kostroma State University
Nizhegorodsky State Pedagogical University
Nizhegorodsky State Technical University
Nizhnegorodskaya State Medical Academy
Nizhnevartovsk State University for the Humanities
Nizhny Novgorod Commercial Institute
Nizhny Novgorod State University (1918)
Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Northern Caucasian State
...
read more »- Hide quoted text -
- Show quoted text -
Why the Kursk State Medical University Russia is especial?

The Kursk State Medical University (KSMU) is the FIRST University in
Russia to begin Graduate/Undergraduate programs in English Medium,
presently is the LEADING Higher Medical Establishment in Russia taught
in English medium.
An emphasis on innovative research and investment in high-quality
facilities and first-rate infrastructure means that no less than 14
Faculties, 80 Departments are rated internationally or nationally as
'Excellent'.
• KSMU is the GOLD Medal Winner for the Best Medical University in
Russia.
• FIRST University in Russia to begin Graduate/Undergraduate programs
in English Medium
• KSMU celebrated her 74th Anniversary on 19th February 2009.
• KSMU is the ONLY Medical University in Russia with a two admission
intakes for foreign students in September & February.
• KSMU hold the HIGHEST foreign Medical Students population in Russia.
• Over 30 Nationalities and 1500 Foreign Students registered and
studying at KSMU, including more than 400 Malaysians & 250 Srilankans.

The Kursk State Medical University offers both PREMEDICAL & MEDICAL
programs in English Medium.

Visit www.ksmu.info for more details………
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-10 14:30:36 UTC
Permalink
Rusty Old Homo Fart, which part of Confucius teachings brought
downfall of China in last couple of centuries as you falsely claimed
here? Are you saying that impotence of education, family value,
discipline etc Confucius teachings brought downfall of China, HK,
Singapore, Japan, S. Korea, and Taiwan as you falsely claimed here?
Are you saying that impotence of education, family value, discipline
etc Confucius teachings will bring the downfall to a nation?

Of course, you have never read Analects of Confucius so you have no
clue what Confucianism is. So I don't expect any intelligent answers
except silly repetitive curses from you. So blah blah blah! I must
have hit bull's eye about you being a homo! Psycho Rusty Old Fool, you
pathetic old homo, most people here including yourself know I am a
Chinese gay from Taiwan, using photos of a beautiful innocent Thai
girl “Meichi” to flame me only shows how pathetic you are! Why don’t
you stay on the topic or apologize for your false claim [BS].


Rusty Old Fool, I only ask you to back up your false claim [BS] that
Confucius teachings (impotence of education, family value, discipline,
etc) brought the downfall of China, Singapore. Japan, Korea, HK,
Taiwan... but you could not because you have never read Analicks of
Confucius and you have no idea what Confucianism is...so you got mad,
you curse, talk dirty, isn't it sad?


Rusty Old Fool, you also defended Nazi's Holocaust. One netter said he
thinks you are more crazy than he had previously thought and you are
commie stooge, then you cursed that netter too. I think that netter
was right! Show us that you are really a man and not an ugly old woman
dressed as a man!

I hope the California fires burn you out!
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-10 14:31:48 UTC
Permalink
Rusty Old Homo Fart, which part of Confucius teachings brought
downfall of China in last couple of centuries as you falsely claimed
here? Are you saying that impotence of education, family value,
discipline etc Confucius teachings brought downfall of China, HK,
Singapore, Japan, S. Korea, and Taiwan as you falsely claimed here?
Are you saying that impotence of education, family value, discipline
etc Confucius teachings will bring the downfall to a nation?

Of course, you have never read Analects of Confucius so you have no
clue what Confucianism is. So I don't expect any intelligent answers
except silly repetitive curses from you. So blah blah blah! I must
have hit bull's eye about you being a homo! Psycho Rusty Old Fool, you
pathetic old homo, most people here including yourself know I am a
Chinese gay from Taiwan, using photos of a beautiful innocent Thai
girl “Meichi” to flame me only shows how pathetic you are! Why don’t
you stay on the topic or apologize for your false claim [BS].


Rusty Old Fool, I only ask you to back up your false claim [BS] that
Confucius teachings (impotence of education, family value, discipline,
etc) brought the downfall of China, Singapore. Japan, Korea, HK,
Taiwan... but you could not because you have never read Analicks of
Confucius and you have no idea what Confucianism is...so you got mad,
you curse, talk dirty, isn't it sad?


Rusty Old Fool, you also defended Nazi's Holocaust. One netter said he
thinks you are more crazy than he had previously thought and you are
commie stooge, then you cursed that netter too. I think that netter
was right! Show us that you are really a man and not an ugly old woman
dressed as a man!

I hope the California fires burn you out!
r***@yahoo.com
2009-05-11 03:15:48 UTC
Permalink
A picture is worth a thousand words. Many pictures mean a million
words - http://www.flickr.com/photos/meichi_cunt_aka_abianchen_filthy_smelly_pussy/
y***@gmail.com
2009-05-12 05:01:29 UTC
Permalink
Post by Xangdi
I knew from the beginning that there was something wrong with
abianchen, because it didn't sound like a man. I thought it was a homo
writing, like RAK, but now we know of course, that it was a woman all
along - an ugly Thai whore.
Post by rst0wxyz
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.  Re: List
of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a choice!
Post by mrliu918
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia - You do have a
choice! You certainly can learn how to make SU-35 from Russia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_institutions_of_higher_learning_...
Scholarship applications for Wikimania 2009 are now open. Apply now!
[Hide]
[Help us with translations!]
List of institutions of higher learning in Russia
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Jump to: navigation, search
The following is a list of universities and other higher educational
Contents [hide]
1 Higher educational institutions
2 Higher education in Siberia
3 See also
4 Links
[edit] Higher educational institutions
Academic Law University of the of the Institute of State and Law of
the Russian Academy of Sciences
Academy of State Fire-Prevention Service of the MIA of Russia
Academy of the National Economy attached to the Government of RF
Adygeysky State University
All-Russian Academy of Foreign Trade
All-Russian Institute of Continuous Education in Forestry
Altai State Technical University
Altai State University
Altai State Medical University
Arkhangelsk State Technical University (1925)
Astrakhan State Technical University
Astrakhan State University, former Astrakhan State Pedagogical
University
Baltic Institute of Economics and Finance
Baltic State Technical University
Barnaul State Pedagogical University
Bashkir State University (1957)
Bauman Kazan State Academy of Veterinary Medicine
Bauman Moscow State Technical University (aka Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Belgorod State Technological Academy of Construction Materials
Belgorod State University
Biysk Pedagogical State University (1939)
Biysk Technological Institute
Branch of Chelyabinsk State University
Branch of Russian University of People Friendship
Branch of Samara State Technical University
Bratsk State Technical University
Buryat State Agricultural Academy
Buryat State University
Chaykovsky Moscow State Conservatory
Chelyabinsk State University
Chelyabinsk State University of Agriculture and Engineering
Cherepovettz State University
Chernyshevsky Saratov State University
Chita State University
Chita State University of Medicine
Chita State University of Polytechnics
Chuvashsky State University
Dobrolubov Nizhnegorodsky State Linguistic University
Don State Technical University
Dubna International University of Nature, Society, and Human
Eastern Institute of Economics, Humanitarian Sciences, Management, and
Law
Eastern Siberian State Technological University
Essentuky Institute of Management, Business, and Law
European University at St Petersburg (ЕУСПб), St Petersburg (1996)
Far Eastern State Academy of Economics and Management
Far Eastern National University (1956), successor of Oriental
Institute in Vladivostok
Far Eastern State Technical Fishing University
Far Eastern State Technical University
Far Eastern State University of Communication
Finance Academy attached to the Government of RF
Gerasimov Institute of Cinematography
Glinka Voronezh State Agricultural University
Gnessin State Musical College Moscow
Gorky Literature Institute
Hertzen Russian State Pedagogical University
Hetagurov Northern Osetinsky State University
Higher School of Economics
Higher School of Religion and Philosophy
Higher Academic School of Graphic Design
Institute of Cryptography, Communication, and informatics by the
Academy of FSS of Russia
Institute of Topical Education “UrInfo-MSU”
International Academy of Business and Banking
International Academy of Business and New Technologies
International Institute of Economics and Law
International University in Moscow
International University of Fundamental Studies
Irkutsk State Academy of Agriculture
Irkutsk State Academy of Economics (Irkutsk Economics Academy)
Irkutsk State University (1918)
Irkutsk State Linguistic University (1948)
Ivanovo State Power University
Ivanovo State University of Chemistry and Technology
Izhevsk State Technical University
Kaliningrad State University
Kalmytzky State University
Kaluga State Pedagogical University
Kant Russian State University (1967), former Kaliningrad State
University, indirect successor to the Albertina University of
Königsberg (founded 1544)
Karelsky State Pedagogical University
Katanov Hakassky State University
Kazan Institute of Finance and Economics
Kazan Medical University
Kazan State Academy of Architecture and Construction
Kazan State Academy of Culture and Art
Kazan State Conservatory
Kazan State Power Engineering University (1968)
Kazan State Technical University
Kazan State University (1804)
Kemerovo State University (1973)
Kemerovo Technological Institute of Food Industry
Khabarovsk State Technical University
Kolomna State Pedagogical University ru
Korolev Samara State Aerospace University
Kostroma State Technological University
Krasnoyarsk State University (Russian abbreviation is KGU) (1963)
(Started as a division of Novosibirsk State University, became
standalone university in 1969)
Krasnoyarsk State Institute of Trade and Economics
Krasnoyarsk State Medical Academy (Russian abbreviation is KrasGMA)
(1942)
Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University (Russian abbreviation is
KGPU) (1932)
Krasnoyarsk State Technical University (Russian abbreviation is KGTU)
(1956)
Kuban State Technological University
Kuban State University (1970)
Kursk State Technical University
Kursk State Medical University
Kuzbass State Technical University (1950)
Kuzbass State University
Lipetzk State Technical University
Lobachevsky Nizhegorodsky State University
Lomonosov Pomorsky State University
Maimonid State Classical Academy
Magnitogorsk State Conservatory
Magnitogorsk State Pedagogical Institute
MAMI Moscow State Technical University
Marysky State Technical University
Marysky State University
MATI Russian State Technological University
Mendeleev Russian University of Chemistry and Technology
Military – Technical University of the Federal Service of Specialized
Construction of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Air Defence Forces of Russian Federation
Military Academy of Communication
Military Academy of Supreme Staff
Missile Forces Military Academy named after Peter the Great
Mordovsky State University
Moscow Academy for Tourism, Hotel and Catering Business
Moscow Academy of Government and Municipal Management
Moscow Agricultural Academy
Moscow Architectural Institute
Moscow Aviation Institute (State Technical University)
Moscow City Pedagogical University
Moscow City Psycho – Pedagogical Institute
Moscow Conservatory
Moscow Engineering Physics Institute
Moscow Institute of Economics, Management, and Law
Moscow Institute of Electronic Technology (Technical University)
Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology
Moscow Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow Medical Academy
Moscow Pedagogical University
Moscow Power Engineering Institute
Moscow State Academic School of 1905 Year Memory
Moscow State Academy of Fine Chemical Technology
Moscow State Academy of Instrument-Making Informatics
Moscow State Academy of Veterinary Medicine and Biotechnology WWW.MGAVM.RU
Moscow State Aviation Technological University (MATI)
Moscow State Construction University
Moscow State Geological Prospecting Academy
Moscow State Industrial University
Moscow State Institute of Electronics and Mathematics
Moscow State Institute of International Relations
Moscow State Institute of Motorcars and Roads
Moscow State Institute of Physics and Engineering (Technical
University)
Moscow State Institute of Radio-engineering Electronics and
Automation
Moscow State Institute of Steel and Alloys
Moscow State Law Academy
Moscow State Linguistic University
Moscow State Mining University
Moscow State Night Metallurgical Institute
Moscow State Open University
Moscow State Social University
Moscow State Technical University (aka Bauman Moscow State Technical
University) (1830)
Moscow State Technical University of Civil Aviation
Moscow State Textile University (aka Kosygin Moscow State Technical
University) (1930)
Moscow State University (1755)
Moscow State University of Agriculture Engineering
Moscow State University of Applied Biotechnology
Moscow State University of Civil Engineering
Moscow State University of Commerce
Moscow State University of Communication
Moscow State University of Culture and Arts
Moscow State University of Economics, Statistics, and Informatics
Moscow State University of Environment Organization
Moscow State University of Food Productions
Moscow State University of Forestry
Moscow State University of Printing
Moscow State University of Railway Engineering
Moscow State University of Service
Moscow State University of Technology "Stankin"
Moscow Technical University of Communication and Informatics
Moscow University for the Humanities (1944)
Moscow University of Consumer Cooperation
Moscow University of Geodesy and Cartography
Murmansk State Technical University
Nekrasov Kostroma State University
Nizhegorodsky State Pedagogical University
Nizhegorodsky State Technical University
Nizhnegorodskaya State Medical Academy
Nizhnevartovsk State University for the Humanities
Nizhny Novgorod Commercial Institute
Nizhny Novgorod State University (1918)
Nizhny Novgorod State University of Architecture and Civil
Engineering
Northern Caucasian State
...
read more »- Hide quoted text -
- Show quoted text -
Why the Kursk State Medical University Russia is especial?

The Kursk State Medical University (KSMU) is the FIRST University in
Russia to begin Graduate/Undergraduate programs in English Medium,
presently is the LEADING Higher Medical Establishment in Russia taught
in English medium.
An emphasis on innovative research and investment in high-quality
facilities and first-rate infrastructure means that no less than 14
Faculties, 80 Departments are rated internationally or nationally as
'Excellent'.
• KSMU is the GOLD Medal Winner for the Best Medical University in
Russia.
• FIRST University in Russia to begin Graduate/Undergraduate programs
in English Medium
• KSMU celebrated her 74th Anniversary on 19th February 2009.
• KSMU is the ONLY Medical University in Russia with a two admission
intakes for foreign students in September & February.
• KSMU hold the HIGHEST foreign Medical Students population in Russia.
• Over 30 Nationalities and 1500 Foreign Students registered and
studying at KSMU, including more than 400 Malaysians & 250 Srilankans.

The Kursk State Medical University offers both PREMEDICAL & MEDICAL
programs in English Medium.

Visit www.ksmu.info for more details………
rst0wxyz
2009-05-12 07:07:54 UTC
Permalink
Please do. This ugly meichi cunt aka abianchen filthy smelly pussy
needs a lot of bashing very badly.
She's ALSO A PERPETUAL LIAR with a very endowed ass-hole, an endowed
pussy hole, and no balls.
r***@yahoo.com
2009-05-21 22:21:16 UTC
Permalink
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
n***@millions.com
2009-05-22 01:57:03 UTC
Permalink
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
So you are able to untie the straight jacket belts.
r***@yahoo.com
2009-05-22 02:02:39 UTC
Permalink
Post by n***@millions.com
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
So you are able to untie the straight jacket belts.
Any bond by butterfingers can be broken easily.
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-22 04:56:03 UTC
Permalink
Rusty Old Fool,most people here including yourself know I am a Chinese
guy from Taiwan, using photos of a beautiful innocent Thai girl
“Meichi” to attack me only shows how pathetic you are! Why don’t you
stay on the topic or apologize for your false claim [BS].

Rusty Old Fool, I only ask you to back up your false claim [BS] that
Confucius teachings (impotence of education, family value, discipline,
etc) brought the downfall of China, Singapore. Japan, Korea, HK,
Taiwan... but you could not because you have never read Analects of
Confucius and you have no idea what Confucianism is...so you got mad,
you curse, talk dirty, isn't it sad?


Rusty Old Fool, you also defended Nazi's Holocaust. BillMoore said he
thinks you are more crazy than he had previously thought, then you
cursed that him too. I think he was right!
Post by rst0wxyz
If you have nothing better to do than talking to yourself, come and
help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen lying bitch on SCC.
r***@yahoo.com
2009-05-22 08:46:29 UTC
Permalink
You, too, ***@millions.com, If you have nothing better to do than
talking to yourself, come and help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen
lying bitch on SCC.
abianchen@my-deja.com
2009-05-22 08:55:21 UTC
Permalink
Hey Rusty Old Fool, why don't we be friends? Come to New York, and
I'll give you the best blow job in your life. I'll even let you anal
me.
Post by r***@yahoo.com
talking to yourself, come and help me bash Meichi cunt aka abianchen
lying bitch on SCC.
r***@yahoo.com
2009-05-22 14:32:52 UTC
Permalink
A picture is worth a thousand words. Many pictures mean a million
words - http://www.flickr.com/photos/meichi_cunt_aka_abianchen_filthy_smelly_pussy/
r***@yahoo.com
2009-05-24 12:33:19 UTC
Permalink
The evilness in abianchen cunt aka meichi filthy smelly pussy aka
abum_chump perpetual lying bitch:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/meichi_cunt_aka_abian­­­chen_filthy_smelly_pussy/
How stupid can you get to follow a failed man as an example?
Loading...